Chapter 7: Substance Use and Crime:

Substance use is part of the Central 8:

A set of eight risk factors linked to the origin and maintenance of criminal behavior, one of which is static the remaining seven of which are Dynamic and may be addressed throughout intervention.

Substance use disorders: Clinical diagnosis or problematic substance use based on a formal diagnostic system

LO 7.1 Key Terminology:

The Oxford dictionary to find the drug as a substance that impacts the body in a physiological Sense Once ingested

LO 7.2: Critical Stats and Facts:

The last systematic analysis of economic costs associated with substance use in Canada was published in 2017
According to the study, the cost to arrest, prosecute, and sentence individuals for illicit drug use and trafficking amounted to $9.27 billion in 2017 from the (Canadian substance use cost and harms 2017)

LO 7.3:

The Brain Disease Model of Addictions: (BDMA):

The brain disease model of addictions states that drug addiction is a “ chronic relapsing disease that changes the structure and function of the brain (Animal Farm 2014)

Dopamine: A brand neurotransmitter that helps control the brain's reward, motivation, and pleasure centers

In some, the theory argues that drugs stimulate the dopamine neurotransmitter system in the brain, which in turn causes direct pleasurable and euphoric sensations-a “High”.
It is also important to note that dopamine is pivotal for motivating and driving goal directed Behavior (lewis 2015). thus, individuals are motivated to continue using drugs because of the rewarding or positive reinforcing effects that dopamine activation has on the brain
In fact, there is increasing evidence that the various dopamine mechanisms that have historically only been used to explain substance related problems may also help explain other disorders characterized by impulsivity, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD and pathological gambling (Reeves et al, 2012, Trifilieff &
Martine, 2014)

Genetics:

The genetics research also tells us that there are potentially many more genetically inherited factors that make someone more susceptible to developing a substance related problem
for example, other inherited behavioral, temporal, and personality traits May either increase the risk of developing an addiction or reduce the risk of developing an addiction protective factors
lastly, having higher dopamine receptor availability may protect against alcohol misuse among genetically high risk individuals (Volkow et al. 2006)

The “Choice” Model:

According to Lewis 2015, the basic tenant of the “choice” model is that addiction is a choice. more importantly, it is a rationale choice in which individuals opt for short-term rewards and exchange for long-term consequences of drug use
the choice model also emphasizes how broader contextual factors, such as poverty and social isolation, impact an individuals level of “choice”

The Self-Medication Model:

Lewis argues that the self medication model is rooted in psychology, sociology, and medicine. essentially this theory states that individuals start using drugs to cope with stress and related negative outcomes associated with trauma and abuse
Lewis eloquently illustrates, these drugs eventually become the source of the problem rather than the solution. in most cases, mood and anxiety problems will occur before the onset of substance use problems, suggesting that individuals self-medicate with alcohol or drugs to temporarily diminish their anxiety
the self medication model is also consistent with the fact that so many individuals- men and women alike- experience co-occurring substance use disorders an internalizing mental health disorders

Lewis’s Developmental- Learning Model of Addiction:

According to Lewis 2015, 2017 addiction to substances is best understood as he learned behavior, in the way that we learn to love our children or our romantic partners. Lewis agrees with the bdma that the brain does not change because of addiction and that the Neuroscience is the clearest way to explain these changes
Louis argues that repetition of certain experiences (drug use) modifies are synaptic pathways. he defines addiction as a “ habit that grows and self perpetuates relatively quickly, when we repeatedly pursue the same highly attractive goal” ( to feel the euphoric High associated with drug use)
Lewis explicitly advocates for new conceptualization of addictions- one that views addictions as a learned behavior rather than a disease of the mind. Lewis is not fully arguing against the disease model of addiction but is advocating for a more integrated perspective that will Empower individuals with substance use problems.

Goldstein’s Tripartite Model to Explain the drug/crime relationship:

Goldstein 185 proposed a tripartite model to explain the link between substance use and crime. this model theorizes three Pathways linking substance use and crime:

psychopharmacological crime: This pathway states that the effects that drugs have on our nervous system and brain (ex. reduced ability to reason, inability to control impulsive thoughts and behaviors) directly cause Criminal behavior. the psychopharmacological pathway also theorizes that people may intentionally ingest drugs to purposely lower inhibitions, and minimize guilts which in turn enables criminal contact (think “liquid courage”)
The economic/compulsive crime: This pathway states that people commit crime to support their drug use.
Systemic crime: Posits that the environment in which people use, cell, and buy drugs is inherently violent and illegal; Turf wars, debit collections, and disputes over diluted products ultimately results in assault, intimidation, and in some cases homicide.

Brochu’s Core Integrative Model Explaining the Drug/Crime Relationships:

The core integrative model has four elements

drug-related consumption stages
risk and protective factors
deviant lifestyle
factors that influence patterns of drug use

Importantly, these four elements are ever changing, interacting in complex and bi-directional ways.

During the “onset” stage, drug use is occasional and Light; as such, one stroke use can be supported through legal sources of income. criminal contact is minimal if not entirely absent at this stage.
the second stage “ deviant involvement”, is characterized by more frequent drug use and the beginning of minor crimes like small thefts and frogs or perhaps more serious crimes if the risk factor is present
at this stage, though, drug use is still not considered to be casually linked to crime; occurs independently of the drug use and is more a function of other factors such as hanging out with criminal friends
During the next two stages “ Mutual reinforcement” and “ economic compulsive” things change. Drug use begins to emerge as a causal factor of crime. during the Third “mutual reinforcement’ stage, drug use can be both a cause of crime or a consequence of crime.
in the fourth “ economic compulsive” stage, people who use drugs have become dependent, and committed crimes perhaps more serious crimes like robbery to buy drugs

Gender Differences:

Doeden and Brown observed that the predictive strength of having a parent who missed you substances was Stronger for females than males. Similarly research suggests that women maintain their drug use as a coping mechanism, whereas men do so because of peer pressure and pleasure.

LO 7.4 Factors associated with crime among individuals who use substances:

There's some evidence that alcohol use is linked tomorrow with interpersonal conflicts like assault and homicide, whereas illicit drug use is linked more so with instrumental violence like robbery.
the likelihood of engaging in accusative crimes does increase as one's resilience on illicit drugs increases. however, how the intoxication effects of certain drugs manifest (ex. mellow you out, make you irritable, or make you feel paranoid) depends not only on the drug but the situation and the person

Acquisitive crimes: Crimes perpetrated in which people illegally obtain material gains with the intention of supporting their drug use

The McMurran Model 2012 Argues that the relationship between alcohol consumption and violence depends on a variety of factors related to the person, the context, the nature of alcohol consumption, and the situation
First, is the person predisposed to aggression, irrespective of the amount of alcohol consumed?
Second, what is the degree of speed of intoxication?
Third, what is the context- who is the individual drinking with and where?
interestingly, about 50% of people with substance use disorders use substances in the presence of others
Lastly, has the individual encountered provocation?

LO 7.5 Assessment approaches:

Strong assessment is the Cornerstone of effective Correctional intervention. not surprisingly, the same principle applies in the context of substance use.
the assessment process, however can serve many objectives simultaneously it can

provide initial screening to determine if a more comprehensive and perhaps more costly assessment is required
help motivate clients to start treatment
describe the nature and extent of the problem to help Focus treatment planning
help evaluate treatment process and change outcomes

Standardized risk assessment tools involve a trained decision maker scoring a series of risk and sometimes protective factors based on a collection of different sources of information. recall that information to conduct risk assessment is typically blend from interviews conducted with the Justice impacted person, Official Police or institutional reports, or other collateral sources in the community family or inmate partners.
Correctional Service Canada CSC provides standardized assessments to incarcerated people to ensure that the same measures are used across the country. these assessments ensure programming and treatment strategies are tailored to each person's needs.
The computerized assessment of substance use CASA measure seven components of substance use

1. Alcohol

2. drug use severity

3. patterns of use

4. links to criminal Behavior

5. parental substance use

6. previous participation in programs

7. treatment readiness

LO 7.6 Treatment Approaches and Effectiveness:

In canada, there are two main pieces of legislation governing alcohol and drug-related crimes: the criminal code of Canada, and the controlled drugs and substance Act

The criminal code deals with crimes related to impaired driving and public intoxication. in addition to systematic laws seeking to combat illicit drugs use, the Canadian government has gone one step further

The Canadian drugs and substance strategy cdss is described as “ a comprehensive, collaborative, compassionate and evidence-based approach to drug policy” The CDSS supports the following initiatives: prevention, law enforcement, the use of timely evidence to inform policy and practice, treatment, and harm reduction measures.

Harm reduction: Assistance programs and policies set in place to promote the safety and well-being of those who use illicit drugs- use the illicit drugs under supervision

Drug Treatment Courts:

Drug treatment cards provide community-based treatment options monitored by the court as an alternative to incarceration. the following criteria must be met:

They accused who must be committed a crime motivated by substance use for example a person who steals money to purchase drugs for their own consumption
the crime was non-violent
they accused plead guilty and a traditional court of law
the judge approved the applicant based on input from the crown prosecutor, the drug treatment Court personnel
the applicant was considered high needs they have multiple needs mental health, a serious substance use disorder, and adequate housing, minimal employment / financial support and at least medium risk to reoffend

Individuals in the drug court system participate in structured outpatient program where they attend both individual and group counseling sessions, receive appropriate medical attention, and test randomly for drugs. they also make regular Court appearances, where a judge reviews their progress and can either impose sanctions ranging from verbal reprimands to exclusion from the program or provide rewards ranging from verbal praise to fewer Court appearances.

Corrections-Based Substance Use Treatment Programs:

Substance use treatment programs are Staples within the correctional environment

Methadone maintenance programs:

they work by:

suppressing opioid withdrawal symptoms, which include insomnia, violent yawning, weakness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills, fever, muscle spasms, and abdominal pain
reducing cravings for opioids
preventing the intoxication that typically accompanies opioid use ex. sedation and euphoria
blocking the euphoric and sedative effects of other opioids, such as heroin

Do corrections based methadone maintenance programs work?

It reduces heroin related overdoses, decreases drug use, minimizes infectious disease transmission, and ultimately reduces criminal conduct a Volkow 2014
MacSwain, Farrell MacDonald, and Cheverie 2014 Also Illustrated that federally a sentence men and women who participate in MMT in a institution and continued whilst in the community were less likely to return to custody following release

Beyond meth maintenance programs:

the use of pharmacologically based treatment approaches continue to evolve and be evaluated
the researchers concluded that heroin assisted treatment HAT can reduce crime. but the results were inclusive in terms of whether HATS are more or less effective than methadone programs given the variability across studies

Motivational interviewing (MI)

is rooted and client centered therapy. It emphasizes clinical empathy and elicit support for clinical automotive. specifically it is the counselor's job to discuss collaboratively in a non-judgmental matter with the client whether a change would be worth making, rather than trying to explicitly convince the client that change is desirable
Importantly, Luty and Inwanowicz ultimately concluded that MI should still be used in combination with other standardized interventions, such as cognitive behavioral and pharmacological interventions.
MI remains an integral part of most Correctional base substance use programs. however, treatment outcome Studies have not been able to tease out the independent effects if any of MI