Chapter: Research Methods (OpenStax Psychology 2e) Notes

Figure 2.2 Some of our ancestors, across the world and over the centuries, believed that trephination—the practice of making a hole in the skull, as shown here—allowed evil spirits to leave the body, thus, curing mental illness and other disorders. (credit: “taiproject”/Flickr)
At one time in history, people believed the earth was flat and that mental illnesses were caused by possession. People can be very wrong in their ideas about the world when they do not rely on evidence to support their claims.
Research is a _
Without research, we would only have intuition and groundless assumptions.
Through research we are able to prove certain ideas through study and testing.
Psychology is a _ therefore, research is required to not only further investigate something but provide verification and support of the findings.

Advertising campaigns often claim to be based on “scientific evidence” when in reality it is based off of belief.
Thinking critically about claims:
- What might they gain if the claim is valid?
- What do other researchers think of the claim?

Psychological research relies on both inductive and deductive reasoning.
THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Deductive reasoning – All living things require energy to survive (premise), ducks are living things, therefore ducks require energy to survive (conclusion).
- Inductive reasoning – You see many fruit growing on trees and therefore assume all fruit grows on trees.
Steps:
1. Scientists form ideas (theories/hypotheses) through deductive reasoning.
2. Hypotheses are then tested through empirical observations and scientists form conclusions through inductive reasoning.
3. These conclusions lead to new theories and hypotheses (or more broad generalizations).

The scientific method of research includes proposing hypotheses, conducting research, and creating or modifying theories based on results.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- Scientists use inductive reasoning to form theories which then generate hypotheses.
- Theory – Hypothesis – tentative and testable statement (prediction) about __
- Predicts how the world will behave if the theory is correct.
- Is falsifiable (capable of being shown to be incorrect).

Case Study
- A single individual or a small number of persons are studied in great depth, usually over an extended period of time.
- ◦ ◦ ◦
Survey
WWB
Example: Genie
- Genie was studied by psychologists after she was found at age 13, having suffered severe abuse and social isolation.
- Psychologists were interested in the effect social isolation had on her development.

A research method used to establish the degree of relationship (correlation) between two characteristics, events, or behaviors.
Correlation Coefficient
- A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables;
- Ranges from
- +1.00 –
- - 1.00 –
Illusory Correlations
- Many people believe that a full moon makes people behave oddly. (credit: Cory Zanker)
ILLUSORY CORRELATIONS
- As well as mistaking correlation for causation, people can also make false correlations.
- Illusory correlations can be involved in the formation of prejudicial attitudes that can lead to discriminatory behavior.
- Confirmation bias

The Experimental Method • allows for investigation of cause-effect relationships between two or more variables.
Variable: • _that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured.
Independent Variable • A factor or condition __to determine if it causes change in behaviors or conditions.
Dependent Variable • A factor or condition at the end of an experiment

Cross-Sectional Research – Longitudinal - Studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly
__.
Researchers often expect some participants to drop out, particularly in this type of study and therefore often initially recruit a lot of participants.
Attrition -

Confounding variables ◦
Selection bias ◦ Assignments to groups so systematic differences are present
Random assignment ◦
Placebo effect ◦ Response to treatment is due to a person’s expectations not the treatment itself
Placebo ◦
Experimenter bias ◦ Experimental results influenced by the researcher
Double-Blind Procedure ◦ WWB

Purpose of code of ethics is to respect the dignity and welfare of clients and research participants.
Role of informed consent
Importance of confidentiality
WWB

Many peer-reviewed publications published research making claims that routine childhood vaccines cause some children to develop autism.
Since these reports, large-scale research was carried out suggesting that vaccinations are not responsible for causing autism.
Many of the original studies have since been retracted.
It was found that the leading research in the original study had a financial interest in establishing a link between childhood vaccines and autism.
Unfortunately the initial claims were publicized and many people still think vaccinations cause autism.

Reliability – Would the same test give the same results every time?
Do the instruments/tools used to collect data do so in consistent, reproducible ways?
A reliable, consistent measurement does not always meant that it is measuring something correctly.
Validity – Does a test measure what it is meant to measure?
A valid measure is always reliable but a reliable measure is not always valid.

An institution’s IRB meets regularly to review experimental proposals that involve human participants.
(credit: modification of work by Lowndes Area Knowledge Exchange (LAKE)/Flickr)
Research involving human participants must adhere to strict guidelines.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) – Committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants.
Informed consent -

A participant in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study receives an injection.
Deception – Debriefing - when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion.
The Tuskegee Syphilis study
Ethical guidelines have not always existed. In 1932, participants were recruited in an experiment studying syphilis in black men.