BIOH 211 Learning Objectives (February 2021)
BIOH 211 Learning Objectives
Lymphatic and Immune Systems
After studying this unit in both lecture and lab, students will be expected to:
1. Identify the structures of the lymphatic system
- Cells, tissues, and organs will be examined.
- Students will describe the function of these structures as specified on the lab list.
2. Describe the formation of lymphatic fluid
- Composition and circulation of lymphatic fluid will be covered.
3. Trace the flow of lymph
- From lymphatic capillaries of the right leg through various vessels and major structures to the left subclavian vein.
4. Compare and contrast the three lines of defense
- Describe the different defense mechanisms for each line of defense.
5. Define diapedesis, chemotaxis, and opsonization
- Explain the importance of these processes for innate defenses:
- Diapedesis: The movement of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.
- Chemotaxis: The movement of an organism or cell in response to a chemical stimulus.
- Opsonization: The process by which pathogens are marked for ingestion and destruction by phagocytes.
6. Describe phagocytosis
- Steps involved in phagocytosis will be detailed:
1. Recognition and attachment
2. Engulfment
3. Formation of phagosome
4. Fusion with lysosome
5. Digestion and exocytosis of debris
- Examples of important phagocytic cells in the body include macrophages and neutrophils.
7. Describe various non-specific (innate) defense mechanisms
- These include:
- Phagocytosis
- Inflammation
- Fever
- Interferons
- Complement proteins
8. Summarize the cells and chemicals involved in inflammation
- Involves mast cells, histamines, cytokines, and other mediators.
9. Identify causes of the four cardinal signs of inflammation
- Redness, heat, swelling, and pain will be explored.
10. Explain the benefits of inflammation
- Protection, initiation of healing processes, and enhancement of immune response.
11. Describe the mechanism of fever
- Including the role of pyrogens:
- Pyrogens: Substances that cause fever by affecting the hypothalamus.
12. Explain the benefits of fever
- Increases metabolic rate, enhances immune response, and inhibits pathogen growth.
13. Describe the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
- Specific types of cells that can function as APCs are dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells.
14. Describe specific functions of immune cells
- a. Natural Killer (NK) cells: Attack and destroy virus-infected or tumor cells.
- b. Dendritic cells: Capture and present antigens to T cells; link innate and adaptive immunity.
- c. Immunocompetent B cells: Produce antibodies.
- d. Plasma cells: Fully differentiated B cells that produce antibodies.
- e. Helper T cells: Activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells; provide help in the immune response.
- f. Cytotoxic T cells: Kill infected or cancerous cells.
- g. Memory cells: Long-lived cells that respond quickly to future exposures to the same antigen.
15. Define epitope
- Describe the role of epitopes in specific (adaptive) immunity:
- Epitope: The part of an antigen recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells.
16. Describe how the antibody-mediated immune response is activated
- Involves recognition and binding of antigens by B cell receptors, leading to B cell activation and proliferation.
17. Name the 5 classes of antibodies
- Identify common locations in the body for each class:
- IgG: Predominantly found in blood and extracellular fluid.
- IgM: Found mainly in blood and lymphatic fluid; first antibody produced.
- IgA: Located in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract, and urogenital tract; also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk.
- IgE: Involved in allergic responses; found in tissues.
- IgD: Functions mainly as a receptor on B cells.
- Describe specialized actions for each class:
- IgG: Provides the majority of antibody-based immunity.
- IgM: Effective in forming complexes.
- IgA: Prevents pathogen attachment to epithelial cells.
- IgE: Binds allergens and triggers histamine release.
- IgD: Role in B cell activation.
18. Compare and contrast defense mechanisms of antibodies vs activated complement system
- Antibodies can neutralize pathogens, whereas the complement system enhances phagocytosis and directly lyses bacteria.
19. Compare and contrast primary and secondary humoral responses
- Differences in response time, level of antibody production, and predominant class of antibodies:
- Primary response: Slower to develop; primarily IgM.
- Secondary response: Faster and stronger; primarily IgG due to memory cells.
Respiratory System
After studying this unit in both lecture and lab, students will be expected to:
1. Identify structures of the respiratory system on models, dissected specimens, and/or images as listed.
2. Describe the histological composition and/or function of various structures as directed on the lab list.
3. List the respiratory structures air passes through during inspiration
- Starting at the nares and ending in the alveolar sac as outlined in the lab list.
4. Define pressures related to respiration:
- Atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, intrapleural pressure, and transpulmonary pressure.
5. Explain the relationship of pressures during ventilation
- Compare intrapleural pressure, transpulmonary pressure, and intrapulmonary pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
6. Explain Boyle's Law and its application
- Inverse relationship between gas pressure and volume, explaining airflow during inspiration and expiration.
7. Identify primary muscles used for:
- A. Quiet inspiration
- B. Deep inspiration
- C. Forced expiration.
8. Identify primary nerves responsible for ventilation.
9. Define anatomical dead space.
10. Name the three layers of the alveolar respiratory membrane and their roles.
11. Describe the source and function of pulmonary surfactant
- Chemical properties include reducing surface tension in the alveoli.
12. Define and calculate respiratory volumes and capacities
- Including relevant units specified in the lab list.
13. Describe gas exchange processes
- A. Alveolar (external) gas exchange.
- B. Systemic (internal) gas exchange.
14. Define hypoxia and hypoxemia
- Distinguish between the two terms:
- Hypoxia: A deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues.
- Hypoxemia: Abnormally low concentration of oxygen in the blood.
15. Define utilization coefficient and venous reserve.
16. Explain the effects of temperature and pH on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen
- Illustrated by shifts in the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve:
- Right shift indicates decreased affinity for oxygen.
- Left shift indicates increased affinity for oxygen.
17. Describe how shifts in saturation curve affect utilization coefficient and venous reserve.
18. List the ways oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood
- Prevalence of each includes:
- Oxygen: Mostly transported as bound to hemoglobin.
- Carbon dioxide: Transported as bicarbonate ions and dissolved CO$_2$.
19. List factors influencing the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange
- Include partial pressure gradient, gas solubility, membrane thickness, surface area, and ventilation-perfusion coupling.
20. Predict effects of changes in respiratory membrane thickness/surface area
- Increased thickness or decreased surface area would decrease hemoglobin saturation.
21. Use ventilation-perfusion coupling to predict impacts on pulmonary blood flow and bronchial diameter.
22. State the reversible equation for CO$_2$ and H$_2$O to carbonic acid (H$_2$CO$_3$), then to hydrogen ions (H$^+$) and bicarbonate ions (HCO$_3^-$).
23. Describe chloride shift in erythrocytes during internal gas exchange
- Physiologic significance includes the maintenance of pH balance in the blood.
24. Explain the relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration.
25. Predict effects of changing carbon dioxide partial pressure on pH and bicarbonate concentration in plasma.
26. Describe the locations and functions of brainstem respiratory centers.
27. List major chemical and neural stimuli to respiratory centers.
28. Explain how neurons of the ventral respiratory group control ventilation during eupnea.
Endocrine System
After studying this unit in both lecture and lab, students will be expected to:
1. Compare and contrast nervous and endocrine system control of body functions.
2. Identify various endocrine organs and structures as specified in the lab list.
3. Identify two major chemical classes of hormones in the human body:
- Amino acid-based hormones (e.g., insulin) and steroid hormones (e.g., cortisol).
4. Compare and contrast transportation of steroid vs. amino acid-based hormones in blood.
- Action sites and mechanisms of plasma membrane vs. intracellular hormone receptors:
- Steroid hormones penetrate cell membranes, while amino acids bind to receptors on the surface of cells.
5. Given a specific second messenger system (e.g., cAMP, DAG, IP3/PIP), identify an subsequent response.