APAH unit 3 notes

The Sarcophagus of the Spouses and Etruscan Funerary Traditions

The Sarcophagus of the Spouses, identified as piece #29, belongs to the Etruscan civilization, a group often characterized as the "fake Romans" who preceded the Roman Empire and ruled much of northern Italy. The Etruscans were active participants in Mediterranean trade and frequent conflicts with both the Romans and the Greeks. This specific object is a funerary piece, serving as a casket intended to hold the ashes of the deceased. Because there is no written record remaining in Etruria, art serves as the primary historical record for this culture.

The sculpture depicts a couple in an embrace, symbolizing the love between spouses. They are portrayed participating in a banquet, which is defined as eating food at a gathering after a death to celebrate life. The couple is shown being buried together, with their ashes placed inside the casket. This piece highlights the celebratory nature of Etruscan funerary customs, which stand in contrast to more somber burial traditions.

Etruscan Architectural Innovations: The Temple of Minerva

The Temple of Minerva (#31) no longer exists in its physical form because it was constructed primarily from wood and mud brick, materials that washed away over time. The temple was built for the goddess Minerva, the Etruscan equivalent of the Greek Athena. The Etruscans integrated significant elements of Greek religion into their own, a practice known as Paganism. This includes the adoption of gods such as Apollo (who retained his name in both the Greek and Roman traditions).

The structure featured a central room called a cella and employed a specific architectural style known as the Tuscan column. These columns are characterized by deeper porches compared to Greek temples. Notably, the Temple of Minerva did not include a pediment. While the building itself is gone, terracotta statues that once sat on the roof have survived. One surviving figure is a statue of Apollo, which depicted scenes such as the labors of Hercules. This placement of statues on the roof was a distinct Etruscan departure from Greek traditions.

The Tomb of the Triclinium and Etruscan Frescoes

The Tomb of the Triclinium (#32) is a funerary site located in Italy designed to resemble a "little house." It served as a communal burial space for multiple individuals, typically belonging to the same family. The tomb is decorated with frescoes—a type of painting involving pigment applied to wet plaster, which ensures the art lasts longer. The imagery depicts a banquet or party intended to celebrate the lives of the deceased.

The internal decorations show figures drinking, some in the nude, and highlight a distinction in gender roles through color: men are depicted with dark skin because they worked outside in the sun and are shown with more nudity, while women are depicted with light skin because they performed indoor chores. Despite these distinctions, they are shown partying together, which suggests a degree of equal status. The ceiling features checkered patterns in earth tones intended to mimic the appearance of camping tents used during outdoor parties.

The Alexander Mosaic and Roman Verism

The Alexander Mosaic (#40), found in the House of the Faun in Pompeii, Italy, was created to celebrate the legacy of Alexander the Great (Alexander the Greek). Alexander was admired for conquering vast territories across Europe, and the Romans' "Hellenophilia"—a term defining the love of Greek culture—led them to depict his triumphs. The mosaic, consisting of approximately 1 million tiles, depicts the Battle of Issus, where Alexander defeated the Persian King Darius. This battle was a turning point because Persia was a massive empire, and the mosaic portrays the pride associated with the victory.

In contrast to the idealized Greek style, the Head of a Roman Patrician (#42) exemplifies Republican Roman verism. Verism is an artistic style that is "too real," emphasizing hyper-realistic features. In this tradition, wrinkles are used to signal wisdom, which was highly valued. This quality is referred to as gravitas, or a sense of weight and seriousness. Rather than making the subject traditionally beautiful, the artist idealized the subject's wisdom and life experience.

Roman Domestic Life and the House of the Vetti

The House of the Vetti (#39) in Pompeii offers a glimpse into the life of wealthy Romans. The house was preserved by the volcanic ash from the eruption of Vesuvius. The structure features black peristyle columns and extensive frescoes on the walls. These wall paintings served as symbols of the rising wealth in Rome.

The house served a dual function as a place of residence and a site for conducting business or social affairs. Key rooms include the atrium, which was the center of the house and the primary meeting place, particularly for the patron-client relationship. Another important room was the triclinium, which served as the dining room.

The Propaganda of Augustus of Prima Porta

The Augustus of Prima Porta (#43) is a prime example of political propaganda. The statue depicts Augustus as young, strong, and handsome, regardless of his actual age or appearance, to project the government's ideal characteristics of a leader. Augustus is shown in the pose of oration, giving a speech to signify his role as a leader. He wears a heavy, ornate breastplate to signify his status as a warrior.

The statue includes divine iconography, such as a Cupid (the god of love, depicted as a naked baby who shoots arrows) clinging to his leg. Because Cupid is the son of Venus, his presence claims a divine lineage for Augustus, effectively making him a god. Smaller naked babies in art are referred to as putto (singular) or putti (plural). The statue utilizes hierarchical scale to place Augustus above others, and the breastplate itself is decorated with images of various gods.

Monumental Roman Structures: The Colosseum and Trajan’s Forum

The Colosseum (#44), also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, was built during the Flavian dynasty to entertain the public and demonstrate power. Unlike the structures of the Republican era, it was built quickly and cheaply using concrete. The Colosseum is an amphitheater, which is defined as a two-sided theater or two semi-circles joined together. It was used for "blood sports," such as gladiators fighting on horses, illustrating the violent nature of Roman society. The name "Colosseum" is derived from a colossal statue of the sun god that stood outside the arena.

The Forum of Trajan (#45) served as the center of the emperor's civic life. Trajan is considered the patron of the forum, which included open spaces for markets, meetings, and public gatherings. A central feature is the Column of Trajan, a relief sculpture that does not hold any weight but serves as a continuous narrative. This narrative spirals up the column, depicting Trajan’s victory over the Dacians. A specific scene shows the Romans building a bridge to reach the battle, emphasizing the military and engineering prowess of the leader.

The Pantheon and Late Roman Funerary Art

The Pantheon (#46) was originally a temple dedicated to all the gods, though it now functions as a Catholic Church. Its construction utilized concrete because it was strong and easy to mold into its iconic dome shape. The dome features an oculus, an open hole at the very top. The building still bears its original Latin title on the front.

The Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (#47) is a stone container for a dead body, likely belonging to a wealthy individual who died in battle. The relief sculpture depicts a chaotic battle between Romans and Goths (referred to as barbarians), with the Romans positioned at the top to signify their victory.

In Petra (#181), located in modern-day Jordan, the expansion of the Roman Empire is evident. The site served as a major trade hub where Greek, Etruscan, and Assyrian gods were all worshipped, showcasing the diversity and reach of Roman cultural influence.

Early Christian Art and the Catacombs of Priscilla

The Catacombs of Priscilla (#48) are underground passageways in Rome used for the burial of many people during antiquity. Because Christianity was illegal until it was approved by Constantine, these underground sites were necessary for worship and burial. Many Christians buried here were martyrs who died for their faith.

Early Christian art focused on good deeds and used symbolic imagery. Common symbols include the peacock, representing life; doves, representing the spirit; and Jesus depicted as a shepherd leading his sheep. The catacombs contain loculi, which are horizontal slots carved into the walls to hold bodies. It took a long time for Christianity to be accepted in Rome because it was perceived as being against the traditional Roman commandments and pagan beliefs.

Early Church Architecture: Santa Sabina and San Vitale

Santa Sabina (#49) is the earliest surviving Christian church and references Greek architectural styles. The layout follows a basilican church plan. Visitors enter through the narthex and walk down the nave (the central part of the church). The nave is separated from the side aisles by columns. At the end of the nave is the altar, where the priest stands, located in front of a curved section called the apse. The windows are positioned to the east to capture the sunrise, following cardinal directions.

San Vitale (#51) was built during the Byzantine takeover of Italy and is dedicated to the martyr San Vitale. The church is famous for its mosaics that illustrate the unity of church and state. The central mosaic depicts Emperor Justinian in the middle, flanked by the military on his left and the church priests on his right, symbolizing his total control and power. Another mosaic shows his wife holding a chalice for the Eucharist (the ritual drinking of the blood of Christ), symbolizing their participation in the divine liturgy and their shared power.

The Hagia Sophia and the Iconoclastic Controversy

The Hagia Sophia (#52) was built after Diocletian split the Roman Empire into two halves to make it easier to rule; this building is located on the Eastern side, within the Byzantine Empire. It began as a Christian church with a central plan featuring a massive dome. Following the Great Schism, it became an Orthodox church. After the fall of Constantinople, it was converted into a Muslim mosque, and later, after the Turkish revolution, it became a museum where prayer is not permitted.

The history of the Hagia Sophia is marked by iconoclasm, the destruction or covering of religious images. Christians created mosaics of Jesus, which Muslims later painted over because Islamic tradition forbids the depiction of religious beings (iconography) and considers praying to idols as a violation of respect to God. Icons, such as depictions of Jesus and Mary, are religious beings represented as icons. When the building functioned as a mosque, the orientation was shifted toward Mecca, resulting in an off-centered interior layout.

Sacred Icons and Illuminated Manuscripts

The Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George (#54) is a famous icon. Mary is referred to as a virgin because the angel Gabriel told her she would have the Son of God without having sex; she is the most represented woman in art history, while Jesus is the most represented person. This icon survived the Great Schism and the periods of iconoclasm (the fight between religions regarding depictions in the church). Such icons were used for prayer, though some argued that praying to drawings violated the Ten Commandments.

The Vienna Genesis (#50) is an illuminated manuscript of the Bible, specifically the book of Genesis. It is written in Greek on vellum with silver and gold pigments, indicating it was commissioned for a wealthy person, likely a king. Scribes, usually monks, wrote the text, while artists provided pictures to explain the stories for those who could not read. Examples from this manuscript include the stories of Rebecca and Eliezer at the well and Jacob wrestling the angel.

Medieval Artifacts and the Lindisfarne Gospels

The Merovingian Looped Fibulae (#53) are ornate brooches or clips used to fasten dresses. Made in medieval France (Merovingian culture), these were found in burials of high-society women. The style is zoomorphic, meaning it focuses on animal forms (such as fish), though the animals are not the primary narrative focus.

The Lindisfarne Gospels (#55) were written by monks and represent Hiberno-Saxon art. The book contains the New Testament's four gospels. Specific pages include:

1. St. Matthew Cross-Carpet Page: Matthew’s experience with Jesus, featuring a highly decorative page that serves as a book cover or separator.
2. St. Luke Incipit Page: Luke’s experience with Jesus, featuring an initial page with elaborate, decorative text.
3. St. Luke Portrait Page: An abstract, stylistic portrait of Luke characterized by elongated forms.

Gothic Narratives and the Golden Haggadah

The Bible Moralisée (#61) features a dedication page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France. Blanche is depicted as a mother and regent, coordinating the young king's education so he can rule on his own, a parallel to the relationship between Mary and Jesus. The scenes from the Apocalypse (the second coming or Last Judgment) are presented in a comic-book style with text and pictures meant for Bible study and explanation.

The Golden Haggadah (#64) is a Jewish manuscript used for narration (Haggadah) in Hebrew. It was used at home for the preparation for Passover. Despite the prohibition of iconography in the Ten Commandments, this book features art because it was intended for private use. It features three main cycles:

1. The Plagues of Egypt: Moses confronting Pharaoh.
2. Scenes of Liberation: Moses leading the people out.
3. Preparation for Passover: The sacrifice of sheep and placing blood on houses so the "1st born son" would not be sacrificed (the passing over of God).

Pilgrimage and the Gothic Cathedral

The Church of Sainte-Foy (#58) was a major site for pilgrimage, where believers visited to see the reliquary of Sainte-Foy. A relic is a physical leftover from a saint, and a reliquary is the gold container that holds it. The church follows a cruciform plan aligned with cardinal directions, allowing visitors to circumambulate (walk around) the relics. At the west portal, the Last Judgment tympanum shows Jesus judging the living and the dead, with the "good" at the top and the "evil" at the bottom to instill moral behavior in the viewers.

The Bayeux Tapestry (#59) is a 230-foot-long embroidery depicting the Norman conquest, including the Battle of Hastings and William the Conqueror’s rise to power. It is political propaganda commissioned by William himself to justify his throne. It ends with a scene of a celebratory meal.

Chartres Cathedral (#60) is a Gothic masterpiece dedicated to the Virgin Mary (Notre Dame). It features innovations such as ribbed vaults to hold weight, flying buttresses to reach great heights, and stained glass (clerestory lighting) to bring in "divine light." It houses the tunic of the Virgin Mary and the skull of Saint Anne. The cathedral reflects the medieval integration of art and faith, intending to mirror heaven.

Finally, the Röttgen Pietà (#62) is a sculpture showing the Lamentation, where Mary holds the dead, emaciated body of Jesus after the crucifixion. This type of sculpture, called a pieta, is designed to evoke intense emotion, emphasizing Jesus’s sacrifice and Mary’s sadness. The figures are often portrayed with bent heads and thin bodies to highlight the physical and emotional weight of the scene.