Race, Place, and Effective Policing

Anthony A. Braga, Rod K. Brunson, and Kevin M. Drakulich
School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
Published: Annu. Rev. Sociol. 2019. 45:535–55 (First published as a Review in Advance on April 2, 2019)
Keywords include police legitimacy, policing communities, racially biased policing, proactive policing, race disparities, crime control.

Effective policing requires public support and cooperation for controlling crime and accountability of offenders.
Poor police–community relationships in disadvantaged communities of color undermine effective policing.
Root causes of these relationships stem from historical discriminatory practices and aggressive contemporary policing strategies.
No simple solutions exist for the complex rift between police and minority communities; however, certain policies can improve relations.
- Need for sophisticated analysis of crime problems.
- Engagement with residents through community policing.
- Ensuring procedural justice and implementing problem-solving strategies.

Policing involves a balance; community cooperation is crucial for effective policing while proactive strategies require regular officer-contact with residents.
Zero-tolerance policing strategies can lead to perceptions of police as intrusive, reducing legitimacy and cooperation, as noted by scholars such as Meares & Kahan (1998) and Reisig (2010).

SQF allows police to stop individuals based on reasonable suspicion of criminal activity without needing probable cause (Terry v. Ohio, 1968).
Research indicates that SQF disproportionately targets communities of color, particularly in poor neighborhoods (Fagan & Davies, 2000).
This policing strategy raises concerns of community perceptions regarding police interests in resolving crime issues.

The historical backdrop of policing includes roles in slave patrols, enforcement of discriminatory laws, suppression of civil rights movements, and current issues with women and minority communities, notably in the context of the drug war of the 1980s.
Racial disparities in policing have fostered distrust among minority communities, which struggle to balance the need for effective crime control with concerns about police treatment.

Racial disparities in criminal justice are often attributed to racial differences in criminal behavior; however, this claim is contested.
2015 statistics: 13% black US population; 53% of reported murder offenders were black.
Majority of violent crime occurs in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighborhoods, heavily populated by families of color due to historical segregation (Peterson & Krivo, 2010).
Collective efficacy, which enhances neighborhood control and reduces violence, is undermined in these communities (Sampson et al., 1997).

Discriminatory policing practices elicit concern about the legitimacy of the criminal justice system.
Aggressive policing strategies exacerbate issues of race, with African Americans typically experiencing higher rates of police contact, mistreatment, and arrests compared to white citizens.
Studies show that blacks experience police as significantly more aggressive, and unarmed black victims are disproportionately more likely to be shot by police.
Implicit biases influence policing practices, often directing suspicion toward black individuals regardless of actual behavior.

Racial differences exist in public perceptions of police legitimacy and trust.
African Americans have historically reported lower satisfaction and trust in police compared to other racial groups (Weitzer & Tuch, 2006).
Social conditions and race significantly affect perceptions of bias and efficacy, contributing to mistrust and disengagement from law enforcement (Drakulich & Crutchfield, 2013).

Addressing the racial disparities and problematic practices in American policing is critical for building trust and improving community relations.
Improving data collection and analysis creates the potential for more effective policing strategies tailored to neighborhoods, reducing overly broad policing tactics.
Emphasizing community engagement and procedural justice enhances police legitimacy and public cooperation.
Problem-oriented policing principles offer proactive solutions to underlying crime issues over mere enforcement tactics.

Investing in community social organization helps foster informal control of public spaces and improves collective efficacy (Sampson, 2011).
Emphasis on positive connections between youth and adults assists in normalizing constructive police–citizen interactions.

It’s necessary for police departments to actively lead in establishing equitable practices within the justice system, recognizing and addressing the historical roots of mistrust in communities of color.
Proactive policing strategies can succeed with a commitment to forming partnerships with community members, focusing on community well-being and crime prevention, rather than punitive enforcement.