OpenStax Psychology Chapter 9 Lifespan Development Study Guide

9.1 What is Lifespan Development?

• Lifespan development refers to the changes and growth individuals experience from birth to death. It can be divided into three categories:
    - Physical Development:
      - Involves physical growth and well-being.
    - Cognitive Development:
      - Encompasses thinking, learning, and intellectual growth.
    - Psychosocial Development:
      - Pertains to emotions, personalities, and social relationships.

• Normative Approach:
    - General guideline for developmental milestones that are typically expected.
    - Important milestones include walking, speaking, and puberty.

• Development can occur in two ways:
    - Continuous Development:
      - Development as a cumulative process that gradually builds upon itself.
    - Discontinuous Development:
      - Development occurs in distinct stages or increments, with periods of stability followed by bursts of change.

Questions

1. Types of Research Methods in Developmental Psychology:
      - Cross-Sectional Study: Involves observing different individuals of various ages at one point in time.
      - Longitudinal Study: Involves observing the same individuals over a prolonged period to assess changes over time.
      - Sequential Study: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods by observing different ages across various points in time.

2. Issues that Developmental Psychology Addresses:
      - The impact of aging on cognitive and physical abilities.
      - The effect of early childhood experiences on later outcomes.
      - Variability in development across different cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds.
      - Developmental disorders and interventions.

3. Difference Between Continuous and Discontinuous Development:
      - Continuous Development: Gradual accumulation of skills and abilities without sudden shifts.
      - Discontinuous Development: Characterized by distinct stages in which abilities and behaviors change dramatically.

4. Is Development Universal?:
      - Development is not universally the same for all children; cultural, social, and economic factors can influence developmental timelines and milestones.

5. Cultural Differences in Development:
      - In some cultures, child independence is encouraged early; in others, group activities are emphasized.
      - Parenting styles vary, affecting children’s confidence and social behaviors.

6. Nature and Nurture:
      - i. Example of Nature: Genetic predispositions influencing traits like temperament and intelligence.
      - ii. Example of Nurture: Influence of education, parenting styles, and socio-economic factors on development.

7. Achievement Gap:
      - Refers to the disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly between socio-economic classes.
      - The gap typically varies: lower-income children often lag behind their middle- and higher-income peers in academic achievements.

8. Solutions to Decrease Achievement Gap:
      - Implementing early childhood education programs.
      - Providing resources and support to low-income families.
      - Promoting access to quality healthcare and educational resources.

9.2 Lifespan Theories

• Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Development:
    - Proposed stages focused on sexual maturation and how it influences adult behaviors.

• Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development:
    - Emphasizes social and emotional developments throughout life.
    - Stages include:
    - 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 years): Trust in caregivers for basic needs.
    - 2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 years): Development of independence.
    - 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Initiative in activities and learning limitations.
    - 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (7-11 years): Confidence in abilities; can lead to feelings of inferiority.
    - 5. Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 years): Exploration of personal identity and roles.
    - 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-29 years): Establishing meaningful relationships.
    - 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-64 years): Contribution to society and family.
    - 8. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Reflection on life and achievements.

• Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development:
    - Stages of cognitive development driven by childhood experiences that shape thinking.
    - Proposed concepts of schemata (mental models for organizing information).
    - Processes:
      - Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemata.
      - Accommodation: Changing schemata to incorporate new information.
    - Defined stages of cognitive development:
    - 1. Sensorimotor: Exploration through senses and motor actions (0-2 years).
    - 2. Preoperational: Development of language and symbolic thinking (2-7 years).
    - 3. Concrete Operational: Logical thinking based on concrete objects (7-11 years).
    - 4. Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning and problem solving (11+ years).

Questions

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development:
      - Development is centered on the resolution of conflicts related to the pleasure-seeking libido.

2. Psychosocial Theory of Development by Erikson:
      - Emphasizes eight stages focused on psychosocial crises that shape personal growth.

3. How Erik Erikson Explains Development:
      - Each stage includes a conflict essential for personal growth and development.

4. Real Life Examples Under Psychosocial Theory:
      - Trust vs. Mistrust: A child being comforted by a parent.
      - Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: A toddler learning to dress themselves.
      - Initiative vs. Guilt: A child taking action in group play.
      - Industry vs. Inferiority: A student feeling competent in schoolwork.
      - Identity vs. Confusion: A teen exploring different social groups.
      - Intimacy vs. Isolation: A young adult forming close relationships.
      - Generativity vs. Stagnation: A middle-aged person mentoring the youth.
      - Integrity vs. Despair: An elderly person reflecting on life satisfaction.

5. Cognitive Theory of Development:
      - Development is a progression of cognitive abilities through distinct stages.

6. Piaget’s Cognitive Abilities Development:
      - Abilities develop through active engagement and interaction with the environment.

7. Definition of Schemata:
      - Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

8. Stages of Cognitive Development:
      - 1. Sensorimotor
      - 2. Preoperational
      - 3. Concrete Operational
      - 4. Formal Operational

9. Comparison of Cognitive Theory and Psychosocial Theory:
      - Both theories emphasize stages; however, cognitive theory focuses on mental processes while psychosocial theory centers on social interactions and emotions.

10. Sociocultural Theory of Development Explanation:
       - Culture and social interactions significantly influence cognitive development.

11. Moral Theory of Development:
       - Moral reasoning follows different stages, developing alongside cognitive abilities.

12. Lawrence Kohlberg:
       - Proposed stages of moral development through studying moral dilemmas.

13. Moral Development Across Stages:
       - Stages emphasize shifting moral attitudes from self-interest to broader ethical principles.

14. Carol Gilligan’s View on Kohlberg’s Theory:
       - Critiqued it for being male-centered and emphasized the importance of relationships in moral reasoning, focusing on care ethics.

9.3 Stages of Development

• Strong development relies on physical growth and stability of the individual’s body.

• Prenatal Development:
    - Stages include germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
    - Proper prenatal care is crucial for preventing complications and ensuring healthy development.
    - Teratogens:
      - Biological, chemical, or physical agents that can harm fetal development.
    - Critical Period:
      - Time during which specific organ systems begin to develop and are highly susceptible to damage.

• Newborn Reflexes:
    - Automatic responses that help newborns survive.
      - Rooting Reflex: Turning head toward touch on the cheek.
      - Sucking Reflex: Sucking on objects in the mouth.
      - Grasping Reflex: Clinging to objects placed in hands.
      - Moro Reflex: Startling reaction that causes spreading and retracting of arms.

• Sensory Abilities:
    - Not fully developed at birth.
    - Prefer voices, especially their mother’s, over others.
    - Can distinguish their mother’s smell from others.

Physical Development

• Growth:
    - Rapid increase during infancy; slows around ages 4-6.
    - Girls typically grow earlier, around ages 8-9.

• Nervous System Development:
    - Blooming Period: Formation of neural connections during infancy and toddlerhood.
    - Pruning Period: Elimination of excess neural connections for efficiency during childhood and adolescence.
    - By age 2, brain reaches about 55% of adult size; by age 6, it reaches about 90%.

Motor Development

• Motor Skills:
    - Ability to move the body and manipulate objects.
    - Develop in a sequence that becomes progressively advanced.
    - Fine Motor Skills: Coordination of small actions (e.g., gripping).
    - Gross Motor Skills: Control of large movements (e.g., running).

Cognitive Development

• Developmental milestones over the early years include:
    - 6-9 months: Beginning to shake their head “no.”
    - 9-12 months: Responding to verbal requests (e.g., wave bye-bye).
    - 8 months: Understanding object permanence.
    - Toddlers: Ability to understand that people will return after leaving.
    - Ages 3-5: Learning basic counting, color identification, and small decision-making.
    - Ages 6-11: Logical thinking, planning, and cause-and-effect understanding emerge.
    - Attention span limited until around age 11.

Psychosocial Development

• Importance of relationships in child development as they learn to interact socially.

• Self-Concept:
    - Positive self-concept development is crucial; it influences confidence and willingness to engage.
    - Recognition of self in mirror by 18 months; photo recognition by 24-46 months.

• Social Behavior Development:
    - Ages 2-4: Enjoyment of peer interactions and exploration of gender roles.
    - Age 4: Initiating tasks, cooperation, and sharing.
    - Age 6: Identification with group memberships.

Parenting Styles

• Different styles have varied impacts on child development:
    - Authoritarian: Emphasizes obedience; may lead to anxiety.
    - Uninvolved: Neglectful and can lead to emotional issues.

Questions

1. Factors Affecting Fetus During Prenatal Development:
      - Maternal health, teratogens, maternal nutrition, and prenatal care are crucial factors.

2. Teratogen Definition and Examples:
      - Teratogens are agents that can cause malformations; examples include alcohol, tobacco, and certain drugs.

3. Developmental Disorders from Environmental Influence:
      - Examples include fetal alcohol syndrome and exposure to harmful substances.

4. Major Developments During Infancy and Childhood:
      - Significant growth in motor skills, cognitive advancements, and emotional development occur.

5. Examples of Newborn Reflexes:
      - Rooting, sucking, grasping, and Moro reflexes are crucial for survival.

6. Brain Development During Newborn Period:
      - Neurons proliferate, and pathways are established, impacting future cognitive abilities.

7. Motor Skills Definition and Types:
      - Motor skills refer to the capabilities to manipulate with precision (fine) or control movement (gross).

8. Attachment Differences Among Children:
      - Developmental researchers often use observational studies or assessments to investigate attachment styles.

9. Attachment Styles:
      - Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized attachment styles.

10. Self-Concept Development in Children:
       - Develops alongside social interactions and self-recognition milestones.

11. Parenting Styles Description:
       - Authoritarian: High demand, low responsiveness; children may become anxious.
        - Authoritative: Balanced approach; promotes independence while providing support.
        - Permissive: High responsiveness, low demand; may result in lack of self-regulation.
        - Neglectful: Low responsiveness and demand; may adversely affect emotional health.

9.4 Death and Dying

• Cultural and individual backgrounds greatly influence perceptions of death.

• Cicely Saunders: Founded the first modern hospice in England focused on humane and dignified end-of-life care.

• Florence Wald: Established the first U.S.-based hospice in 1974.

• Hospice Care Statistics:
     - Provides care for approximately 1.65 million Americans and their families to promote comfort at home.

• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’ 5 Stages of Grief:
     - Denial: Refusal to accept reality.
     - Anger: Frustration and blame toward others or self.
     - Bargaining: Seeking to negotiate or delay death.
     - Depression: Deep sadness and regret over losses.
     - Acceptance: Coming to terms with the reality of death.

• Living Will/Advance Directive:
     - Legally binding document detailing one's end-of-life wishes, including medical interventions.

• Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) Order:
     - States that if respiration or heartbeat cease, no resuscitative measures should be undertaken.

• Influences on Living Wills and DNR Decisions:
     - Decisions may be shaped by individual’s beliefs, cultural practices, and upbringing.

Questions

1. Factors Influencing Views on Death:
      - Cultural norms, religious beliefs, personal experiences with loss, and societal attitudes.

2. Function of a Hospice:
      - To provide compassionate care, comfort, and support to terminally ill patients and their families.

3. Explain the 5 Stages of Grief:
      - Stages reflect emotional responses to loss; individuals may experience them in different orders or may revisit stages.

4. Distinction Between DNR and Living Will:
      - A DNR specifically refers to resuscitation orders, while a living will encompasses broader medical decisions regarding end-of-life care.