Nationalism and Revolutions
Every nation gets the government it deserves.
- Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)
Essential Question: What were the causes and effects of the various
revolutions in the period from 1750 to 1900, including
influences of the Enlightenment and emerging
nationalism?
The age of new ideas led to political and philosophical conflicts. Like the
English statesman Edmund Burke, the French thinker Joseph de Maistre was
a conservative who went against the tide of Enlightenment thinking. In the
view of conservative thinkers such as Burke and Maistre, revolutions were
bloody, disruptive, and unlikely to yield positive results. However, try as
conservatives might to quell revolutionary change, the desire of common
people for constitutional government and democratic practices erupted in
revolutions throughout the 19th century. And many nations did, indeed, get a
new form of government that responded to the new wave of thinking with its
key ideals: progress, reason, and natural law.
The American Revolution
The ideals that inspired the American Revolution had their roots in European
Enlightenment philosophy. The economic ideas of the physiocrats also played
a part in the American Revolution, providing a defense of free market ideas
in opposition to English mercantilism. Additionally, the American colonists
had become increasingly independent politically. Colonial legislatures were
making decisions usually made by Parliament. Moreover, great distances
separated the colonists from Parliament and the king in London. With economic and political desires for independence grew a new social spirit.
Declaration of Independence On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of
Independence expressed the philosophy behind the colonists' fight against
British rule. In the document, Thomas Jefferson picked up the phrase
"unalienable rights" from John Locke. For Jefferson, these rights were to life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. In the war that followed, the colonists
triumphed in 1783 with crucial help from Britain's long-time enemy, France.
The New Zealand Wars
New Zealand had been occupied by Polynesian people, the Maori, since at least the mid- 1200s. In the period between their arrival and the arrival of Europeans the Maori developed a rich culture. The people were divided into individual tribes, or iwi, who sometimes engaged in warfare. After colonization by the British, made official by annexation of New Zealand in 1840, English control over Maori affairs increased, as did pressure for their land. These issues resulted in a series of wars between the Maori and British collectively known as the New Zealand Wars. Though the Maori tribes fought together, developing a sense of Maori nationalism, by 1872, the British had won.
The French Revolution
In France in the 1780s, revolutionary ideals took on their own spin, summarized in the slogan liberté, égalité, et fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity). These ideas, which struck many people as radical, were popularized throughout Europe in the writings of the philosophes.
Economic Woes However, additional causes led to the French Revolution.
France had long spent more than it was taking in, partly to finance a series of
wars. Among this spending was the economic aid that France supplied the
Americans in their revolution. To address its financial situation, the French
government called a meeting of the Estates-General in spring 1789. Three
sectors of society, or estates, made up the Estates-General: the clergy (religious officials), the nobility, and the commoners. However, inequality in voting caused the commoners (who made up 97 percent of French society) to break away and form a new body, the National Assembly.
The Revolution Begins In the early days of the French Revolution,
moderates such as Marquis de Lafayette seemed to be on the point of establishing a constitutional monarchy. The National Assembly began meeting in Paris, but then the King threatened to arrest the leaders. Angry crowds rioted in Paris and elsewhere in France. On July 14, 1789, a crowd in Paris stormed the Bastille, a former prison that symbolized the abuses of the monarchy and the corrupt aristocracy. In the French countryside, peasants rose up against nobles, even burning some manor houses. Some royal officials fled France. The king was forced to accept a new government with a National Assembly in charge. The date July 14, 1789, became French Independence Day. The most permanent changes were enacted early in the Revolution the abolition of feudalism and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a statement declaring basic human rights. Louis XVI and the nobility refused to accept the limited monarchy, which led to dissatisfaction among radical groups such as the Jacobins and inspired the establishment of the First French Republic in 1792. The Reign of Terror, a period during which the government executed thousands of opponents of the revolution, including the king and queen, sprang from the Jacobins. After a period of turmoil and war, the brilliant general Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France in 1804.
T h e Haitian Revolution
At the end of the 18th century, revolutionary forces were also at work in the
rich French sugar and coffee colony of Haiti on the western third of the island
of St. Domingue, also known as Hispaniola. Slaves revolted against their
white masters, killing them and burning their houses. This slave revolt was
soon joined by escaped slaves called Maroons. The examples of the recent
American a n d French revolutions led former slave Toussaint L ' O u v e r t u r e
to join the revolts in 1791 and then to lead a general rebellion against slavery.
Besides being well-read in Enlightenment thought, L'Ouverture proved to be
a capable general. His army of enslaved Africans and Maroons established an
independent government and played the French, Spanish, and British against
each other.
Haiti In 1801, after taking control of the territory that would become the
independent country of Haiti, L'Ouverture produced a constitution that granted
equality and citizenship to all residents. He also declared himself governor
for life. Haiti next enacted land reform: plantations were divided up, with the
lands being distributed among formerly enslaved and free black people.
L'Ouverture worked with the French but they betrayed and imprisoned
him. He died in France in 1803. But he had cemented the abolition of slavery
in Haiti, which he set on the road to independence from France.
In 1804, L'Ouverture's successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, orchestrated
a Haitian declaration of permanent independence. Thus, Haiti became the
first country in Latin America to
win its independence and the first
black-led country in the Western
Hemisphere. It was also the only
country to become permanently
independent as a result of a slave
uprising
Comparing the Haitian and
F r e n c h Revolutions B o t h the
Haitian a n d French revolutions
grew out of the Enlightenment's
insistence that men had natural
rights as citizens, and that legal
r e s t r a i n t s w e r e limiting the
freedom of people by forcing
them into various estates (social
classes). However, in the case of
the Haitians, the restraints were
more s e v e r e - t h e rebellion was
led by slaves who had no rights
at all.
Creole Revolutions in Latin America
On the Latin American mainland, revolutionary ideals were taken up by
creoles. Born of European ancestry in the Americas, the creoles were well
educated and aware of the ideas behind the revolutions in North America and
France. They considered themselves superior to the mestizos, who were born
of European and Indian parents. Colonists who were born in Spain or Portugal,
known as peninsulares, felt superior to everyone. At the bottom of the social
ladder were the African slaves, the indigenous population, and mulattoes,
those of African and either European or indigenous ancestry. (Some of these
social distinctions remain today.)
There were many reasons for discontent in the colonies, each of which
encouraged some people to desire independence from Spain:
• Many creoles were wealthy owners of estates, mines, or businesses.
They opposed Spain's mercantilism, which required colonists to buy
manufactured goods only from Spain and sell products only to Spain.
• Creoles wanted more political power. They resented that Spain tended
to give important government jobs in the colonies to peninsulares.
• Mestizos wanted political power and a share of the wealth of the
colonies. Many had jobs in the towns or worked in the mines or on the
estates of the peninsulares and creoles.
The Bolívar Revolutions In many parts of South America, the desire for
independence from Spain grew among the creole class. Fearing the masses,
the creoles refused the support of mestizos, indigenous people, and mulattos
(people o f mixed African and European heritage). The creoles had seen
the result in Haiti of a slave uprising as well as the excesses of the French
Revolution during the Reign of Terror. Some creoles, such as Simón Bolívar,
continued to push for Enlightenment ideals in Latin America. He became
instrumental in the independence of areas that became Venezuela, Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru.
Bolívar was born in Venezuela in 1783 to a family whose ancestors had
been village aristocrats in Spain. The family had grown very wealthy in
Venezuela, and Bolivar had access to this wealth for his revolutionary causes.
After considerable military success in Latin America fighting the Spanish, his
forces achieved the formation of a large area that he called Gran Colombia.
He hoped it would become a federation similar to the United States, one based
on Enlightenment ideals. He described himself as a liberal who believed in a
free market and the abolition of slavery. Bolivar's goals and concerns for Latin
America are outlined in his "Jamaica Letter" (1815): "Generous souls always
interest themselves in the fate of a people who strive to recover the rights to
which the Creator and Nature have entitled them, and one must be wedded to
error and passion not to harbor this noble sentiment.*
The new nations o f Latin America suffered from the long wars
of independence. Armies loyal to their generals led to the rise of the caudillos strong, local leaders with regional power bases. These men
intervened in national politics to make or break governments. Sometimes
the caudillos defended the interests of the regional elites and sometimes of
the indigenous population and the peasants, but in general they disregarded
representative forms of government and the rule of law.
Results of the Creole Revolutions Although the constitutions of the
newly independent countries in Latin America legally ended some social
distinctions and abolished slavery, governments were often conservative. The
first constitution of Peru, for example, forbade voting by those who could not
read or write in Spanish, which effectively denied most indigenous people
the vote until the constitution was changed in 1860. The creoles continued to
form a powerful and conservative upper class, as they had before the wars of
independence from the European nations.
Women gained little from the revolutions in Latin America. They were still
unable to vote or enter into contracts. Most women received little education
until late in the nineteenth century, and most remained submissive to men.
One notable exception was Manuela Sáenz (1797-1856), who was the lover
of Simón Bolívar. She actively participated in fighting alongside Bolívar, for
example, in 1822 in a battle near Quito, Ecuador. An excellent rider as well
as courageous fighter, she rose to the rank of colonel. On one occasion, she
saved Bolivar's life, for which she received the nickname "Liberator of the
Liberator." (Connect: In a brief paragraph or outline, trace the connections
between creole elites and revolutions in Latin America. See Topic 4.5)
Later Challenges to Spanish Colonialism Spain's grip on parts of its
empire lasted throughout the 19th century. In the Caribbean, Puerto Rico
and Cuba were among its final colonial holdings. Both islands saw uprisings
against Spanish rule beginning in the year 1868.
While many individuals and organizations contributed to the spirit of
revolution in Puerto Rico, the role of Lola Rodríguez de Tió was unique.
A recognized poet during an era of little educational opportunity for women,
Rodríguez de Tió became famous for her eloquent critiques of Spain's
exploitive rule over Puerto Rico. Her home became a meeting place for
political thinkers and revolutionaries. At such meetings, she began to read
lyrics to a revolutionary song, "La Boriqueña," which encouraged her fellow
Puerto Ricans, "Awake from your sleep, for it's time to fight!"
The 1868 uprising forced Rodriguez de Tió into exile in Venezuela. She
was allowed to return in 1885, but her critical writings again ended in exile
this time in Cuba. Once there, she wrote and worked for Cuban independence,
earning her exile from there, too, to New York. She returned to Cuba in 1899
and spent her remaining years as a campaigner for social justice there.
Propaganda Movement The Philippines, too, remained a Spanish
colony throughout the 19th century. Educational opportunities, even for well-
to-do Filipinos, were limited and controlled by religious authorities. As a
result, many young men (often creoles and mestizos) from wealthy families
traveled to Europe, especially Madrid and Barcelona, to attend universities. An atmosphere of nationalist fervor and republicanism, inspired by Enlightenment
thinking, existed in 1880s Europe, and these Filipino students embraced it.
Jose Rizal became the most prominent of these young agitators, all o f
whom contributed to magazines, pamphlets, and other publications advocating
for greater autonomy for the Philippines. Called the Propaganda Movement,
it did not call for revolution or independence. But Spanish authorities viewed
its members with suspicion. Rizal's arrest in 1892 and execution in 1896
shocked Filipinos and helped spur the first nationalist movement with the
organization and strength to truly challenge Spanish rule. A serious military
upheaval, the Philippine Revolution, began in 1896.
Nationalism a n d Unification in Europe
As nationalism spread beyond Europe, people often created an identity under
one government where none had existed before. Nationalism increased in
France and in other areas of Europe and in the Americas. More than in the past,
people felt a common bond with others who spoke their language, shared their
history, and followed their customs. Nationalism thrived in France and beyond
its borders in areas conquered by Napoleon, particularly those in the Germanic
areas of the declining Holy Roman Empire. Nationalism was a unifying force
that not only threatened large empires, but it also drove efforts to unite people
who shared a culture into one political state.
Italian Unification Count di Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont-
Sardinia, led the drive to unite the entire Italian Peninsula under the only
native dynasty, the House of Savoy. At the time, the region was divided among
a patchwork of kingdoms and city-states, and most people spoke regional
languages rather than Italian. Cavour himself spoke French better than
he spoke Italian. Like other classical liberals, he believed in natural rights,
progress, and constitutional monarchy. But he also believed in the practical
politics of reality, which came to be called realpolitik. Thus, he did not
hesitate to advance the cause of Italian unity through manipulation. In 1858, he
maneuvered Napoleon III of France into a war with Austria, hoping to weaken
Austrian influence on the Italian Peninsula. Napoleon III backed out of the war
after winning two important battles, partly because he feared the wrath of the
Pope, who was not eager for his Papal States to come under the control of a
central Italian government.
Nevertheless, it was too late to stop the revolutionary fervor, and soon
several areas voted by plebiscite, or popular referendum, to join Piedmont (the
Kingdom of Sardinia). To aid the unification effort, Cavour adopted the radical
romantic revolutionary philosophy of Giuseppe Mazzini, who had been
agitating for Italian resurgence (Risorgimento) since early in the nineteenth
century. Cavour also allied with the Red Shirts military force led by Giuseppe
Garibaldi, which was fighting farther south in the Kingdom of Naples.
German Unification In Germany, nationalist movements had already
strengthened as a result of opposition to French occupation of German states under Napoleon Bonaparte. Following the Congress of Vienna, which settled
the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, revolutions occurred in a number of European
states, including Prussia and Austria. The revolutions of 1848 were the result
of both nationalism (especially a desire for independence) and liberalism
(a desire for representation under constitutions that recognized civil liberties).
Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck, who like Cavour favored realpolitik,
used nationalist feelings to engineer three wars to bring about German
unification. Bismarck manipulated Austria into participating in two wars, the
first with Prussia against Denmark (1864) and the second between Prussia
and Austria (Seven Weeks' War of 1866). After winning both wars, Bismarck
manipulated France into declaring war against Prussia. His armies beat the
French soundly in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). In each of these three wars,
Prussia gained territory. In 1871, Bismarck founded the new German Empire,
made up of many territories gained from the wars, including Alsace-Lorraine,
an area long part of France on the border between France and the new Germany.
Global Consequences By 1871, two new powers, Italy and Germany,
were on the international stage in an environment of competing alliances.
Balance of power would be achieved briefly through these alliances, but
extreme nationalism would lead to World War I.
Unification did not solve all Italian troubles. Poverty in Italy, more in the
south than in the north, led to considerable emigration in the late nineteenth
century particularly to the United States and to Argentina, where the
constitution of 1853 specifically encouraged immigration, the movement of
people into the country from other countries. Balkan Nationalism The Ottoman Empire had been the dominant force in
southeastern Europe for centuries. But for many reasons, the 17th century saw
the beginning of its long, slow decline. A failed attempt to conquer Vienna in
1683 signaled the beginning of successful efforts by Austria and Russia to roll
back Ottoman dominance in the Balkans. It was largely due to the increasing
involvement and contact with Western European ideas and powers that Balkan
nationalism developed.
In Greece, which by 1800 had been under Ottoman control for more than 350
years, increased contact with Western ideas meant exposure to Enlightenment
principles. It also meant exposure to the reverence with which Greece and
its ancient culture were viewed across Europe. Together, these developments
helped reawaken Greek cultural pride and stoke the fires of Greek nationalism.
A protracted civil war against Ottoman forces brought some success. However,
it took the intervention of a British, French, and Russian fleet, which destroyed
an Ottoman fleet in 1827, to help assure Greek independence.
Events in other Balkan regions, such as Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania,
followed a similar, but by no means identical, course. The waning of Ottoman
control led to greater freedom and an influx of new ideas, including nationalism.
People began to rally around important cultural markers, such as language,
folk traditions, shared history, and religion. Later, outside powers, such as
Russia or Austria, aided in achieving independence. Ottoman Nationalism The 1870s and 1880s saw the development in
the Ottoman state of O t t o m a n i s m a movement that aimed to create a more
modern, unified state. Officials sought to do this by minimizing the ethnic,
linguistic, and religious differences across the empire. Taking control of
local schools and mandating a standard curriculum was a major part of this
drive. But the effects of nationalism were not limited to Balkan territories
and Ottoman officials. Ethnic and religious groups within the Ottoman
Empire had nationalist urges of their own, and they viewed Ottomanism with
suspicion. Ironically, this attempt to create a more unified state actually served
to highlight and intensify subject people's feelings of difference and promote
their desire for independence.
The Future of Nationalism While nationalism continues to shape how
people view themselves and their political allegiances, some signs suggest
that nationalism might be starting to decline. In Europe, many countries
have agreed to use the same currency, to allow people to travel freely across
borders, and to coordinate public policies. These changes might reflect a shift
away from nationalism and toward a larger political grouping. Like city-states
and empires, nations might someday give way to other forms of political
organization.
KEY T E R M S BY THEME
G O V E R N M E N T: A m e r i c a n
R e v o l u t i o n
D e c l a r a t i o n o f
Independence
GOVERNMENT: French
Revolution
philosophes
Declaration of the Rights
o f M a n
Reign of Terror
CULTURE: France
liberté, égalité, et fraternité
GOVERNMENT: Haitian
Revolution
Haiti
Toussaint L'Ouverture
GOVERNMENT: Bolivar
R e v o l u t i o n s
Simon Bolivar
GOVERNMENT: Puerto Rico
Lola Rodríguez de Tió
GOVERNMENT: Philippines
Propaganda Movement
GOVERNMENT: Italian
Unification
realpolitik
Giuseppe Mazzini
Risorgimento Giuseppe Garibaldi
CULTURE: Italy
immigration
GOVERNMENT: German
U n i fi c a t i o n
Otto Von Bismarck
GOVERNMENT: Balkans
Ottomanism
SOCIETY: Classes
Maroons
mestizos peninsulares
mulattoes SOCIETY: Europe
Bastille
Italian Peninsula