Natural Law Theory

INTRODUCTION

Natural Law Theory asserts that inherent rights and wrongs exist, universally applicable and discoverable through human reason, reflecting an objective moral order. It forms a foundational framework for understanding morality, ethics, and justice, influencing legal systems and philosophical thought for centuries by positing that certain moral principles are intrinsic to human nature and the natural world.

PHILOSOPHERS

  • Plato

    • Born: 428/427 BCE, Athens, Greece.
    • Major Works: The Republic, The Apology, The Symposium, Phaedo.
    • Key Concepts: Theory of Forms, Justice as Harmony, Dualism, Ethics and Politics.
    • Contribution to Natural Law Theory: Concept of eternal and universal moral order, discoverable through reason and philosophical thinking.
    • Plato’s View:
    • Form of the Good: According to Plato's Theory of Forms, this is a perfect, eternal, and unchanging entity that exists in a higher realm, serving as the ultimate source of true knowledge and morality. Understanding it directly leads to moral insight.
    • Physical Reality: Imperfect and changing, physical reality is merely an imitation or shadow of the higher reality of the Forms. Therefore, true knowledge and moral principles are not found in the sensory world but through rational apprehension of the Forms.

  • Aristotle

    • Born: 384 BC, Stagira, Greece.
    • Major Works: Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, Metaphysics, Poetics, Physics, On the Soul (De Anima).
    • Key Concepts: Teleology, 4 Causes, Golden Mean.
    • Contribution to Natural Law Theory: Theory of causality in understanding ethical behavior, emphasizing that everything has an inherent purpose or end (telos).
    • Aristotle’s View:
    • Four Causes: Aristotle's framework for understanding existence and purpose includes:
      1. Final Cause: The ultimate purpose or end (telos) for which something exists. For humans, this ultimate goal is Eudaimonia, often translated as flourishing, true happiness, or living a good life, achieved by acting in accordance with reason and virtue.
      2. Efficient Cause: The agent or force that brings something into being or causes a change (e.g., the sculptor creating a statue).
      3. Material Cause: The raw material or substance from which something is made (e.g., the bronze of a statue).
      4. Formal Cause: The form, essence, or structure of a thing, determining its nature (e.g., the shape of the statue).

  • Thomas Aquinas

    • Born: 1224, Roccasecca, Kingdom of Sicily.
    • Epithets: Angelic Doctor, Dumb Ox, Doctor Communis, Doctor Universalis, Doctor of Humility.
    • Major Works: De regimine principum, Summa contra gentiles, Summa theologiae.
    • Key Concepts: Relationship between faith and reason, the theory of four laws, natural law.
    • Contribution to Natural Law Theory: Formally introduced and systematically elaborated upon Natural Law, integrating it with Christian theology.
    • Law of St. Thomas Aquinas: Aquinas posited a hierarchical system of laws:
    • Eternal Law: This is God's perfect and unchangeable reason, governing the entire universe from eternity. It is the divine blueprint of creation, fully known only to God.
    • Natural Law: Humanity's participation in the Eternal Law, accessible through human reason. It indicates basic moral principles, guiding humans to discern right from wrong based on their inherent nature and inclinations towards good.
    • Human Law: Specific laws devised by humans for the practical functioning of societies. Just human laws must be derived from and consistent with Natural Law to hold moral authority.
    • Divine Law: God's law as directly revealed through sacred scripture (e.g., the Ten Commandments) and tradition. It guides humans toward their supernatural end (salvation) and clarifies aspects of natural law.

NATURAL MORAL/EXTERNAL LAW

  • Definition: This law originates from human reason, reflecting God's eternal law, and directs human behavior towards good and away from evil. It is an intrinsic moral compass.
  • Characteristics:
    • Serves as a moral compass rooted in human nature, guiding individuals to inherent moral truths.
    • Can be discerned through reason alone, without the need for specific divine revelation, making it universally accessible.
    • Becomes external when its principles are articulated and applied through human or moral laws in daily life and societal structures.

NATURE AND NATURE'S

  • Nature: Refers to the inherent quality, essence, or fundamental character of a thing, which dictates its actions and tendencies towards its specific purpose or end (telos). It originates from Latin "natura," meaning ‘that which is born’ or ‘the way something naturally acts.’
  • Human Nature: Encompasses the essential qualities, capacities, and teleological ends that define humanity. It refers to what we intrinsically are and how we are designed to act to achieve our ultimate flourishing.

PRINCIPLES - Five Principal Natural Inclinations

These are widely recognized as primary precepts or basic goods that human reason naturally grasps as inherently desirable and necessary for human flourishing:

  1. The Good: The foundational inclination "To do good and avoid evil." All other inclinations spring from this basic drive to seek what is good and shun what is harmful.
  2. Knowing the Truth: Humans possess a natural curiosity and an intrinsic drive to seek, understand, and contemplate the truth, spanning from scientific inquiry to philosophical and theological understanding.
  3. Sexual Union: The inclination "To generate and nurture life" emphasizes the natural drive to procreate, ensuring the continuation of the human species, and the subsequent responsibility to educate and care for offspring.
  4. Self-Preservation: A fundamental drive "To preserve and protect life," which includes behaviors like seeking sustenance, avoiding danger, and maintaining health to prolong one's existence.
  5. Living in Society: Humans are inherently social beings, inclined "To live harmoniously with others," forming communities, communicating, cooperating, and upholding justice for mutual benefit and the common good.

STRENGTHS

  • Universal Moral Foundation: Natural Law provides a basis for objective moral claims that transcend cultural, religious, or individual variations, suggesting a morality applicable to all people at all times and places.
  • Rational and Understandable Concepts: Its principles are asserted to be discoverable through human reason, making them accessible and comprehensible even without specific divine revelation, fostering a sense of shared logical understanding of morality.
  • Promotes Human Dignity and the Common Good: By focusing on inherent human nature and natural inclinations, it inherently values human life, autonomy, and communal well-being, fostering actions that uplift society as a whole.
  • Values Life, Truth, Justice, and Care for Others: It strongly underpins the intrinsic value of foundational elements such as the sanctity of life, the pursuit of knowledge, the establishment of fair systems, and compassion towards fellow humans, seeing these as essential for human flourishing.
  • Forms the Basis for Laws Guiding Moral Standards of Legal Bodies: Natural Law has historically influenced and continues to inform the development of international law, human rights doctrines, and ethical frameworks in various legal systems, providing a philosophical justification for certain moral standards in jurisprudence.

WEAKNESS

  • Assumes a Fixed Human Nature, Neglecting Changes: Critics argue that human nature is not static but evolves with scientific understanding, cultural shifts, and societal norms, making a "fixed" set of natural laws problematic and potentially outdated in a changing world.
  • Difficult to Apply to Modern Issues, Does Not Align Well with Contemporary Challenges: Applying ancient or medieval concepts of "natural" behavior to complex contemporary issues like reproductive technologies, environmental ethics, or artificial intelligence can be challenging and may lead to restrictive or irrelevant conclusions.
  • Restricts Freedom by Defining What is “Natural” or Acceptable: By dictating what is "natural" or "unnatural," it can be seen as limiting individual autonomy and personal choices, especially concerning sexuality, lifestyle, and medical decisions, potentially imposing a specific moral code.
  • Allows for Different Interpretations of What is Natural or Moral, Leading to Debates: The concept of "what is natural" or "what human reason dictates" is open to varied interpretations, leading to intractable moral debates and disagreements even among its proponents, making universal consensus difficult to achieve.
  • Relies on Belief in a Purpose or Creator, Which is Not Universally Accepted: For many classic formulations (especially Aquinas'), Natural Law is intrinsically linked to a teleological view of the world or a divine creator. This presupposes a belief system not universally shared in secular or pluralistic societies, diminishing its universal appeal to those who do not subscribe to such views.

CONCLUSION

  • Natural Law Theory: Posits that “Actions are judged in accordance with rational and natural moral principles,” which are discernible through human reason.
  • Quotations:
    • "The natural law is nothing else than the rational creature’s participation in the eternal law." - Thomas Aquinas.
    • "True justice follows the law written in human reason and nature." - This encapsulates the essence of natural law as an inherent guide to righteous conduct.
  • Summary of Natural Law: “Justice is reason within nature's law,” meaning that what is just is what accords with the rational order inherent in nature itself.