Notes: The Self from Theoretical Perspective (Sociology, Anthropology, Psychology)
B. Sociology
Self as a social construct: the self is shaped by interactions with others and the surrounding culture.
Mead and the social self: the self develops through social interaction, especially during childhood.
Key distinction by George Herbert Mead:
"I" — the spontaneous, subjective self.
"Me" — the socialized self, shaped by internalized social expectations.
Mead's claims:
The self is not innate; it develops through social experiences.
- Social interaction is the foundation of the self; we understand others’ perspectives through interaction.
"I" and "Me": two interrelated aspects of the self
"I": spontaneous, impulsive, creative; the part that acts in situations.
"Me": socialized, the perception of how others view us and internalization of social rules.
Stages of development (learning to take on others’ roles):
Preparatory Stage: Infants and young children imitate those around them.
Play Stage: Children engage in role-play, adopting the perspectives of specific individuals (e.g., mommy, doctor).
Game Stage: Children understand multiple roles in a complex social situation (e.g., baseball with defined positions).
Generalized Other: as we mature, we form an understanding of the attitudes and expectations of society as a whole.
The Self as a Product of Modern Society: Social Construction
Self and identity are shaped by social structures, cultural norms, and interactions with others.
Modern vs. Pre-modern identities:
Pre-modern: identity more fixed by tradition and social roles.
Modern: greater fluidity and choice, but still influenced by social factors.
Modern Influences: globalization, technology, and consumer culture shape modern identities.
Potential for Alienation: greater freedom in self-construction can also lead to alienation or a less stable sense of self.
Summary: Mead’s view portrays the self as a dynamic, ongoing process continually shaped by social interaction and the social world.
C. Anthropology
The self is a culturally constructed entity: deeply embedded in and shaped by the specific cultural context.
Move away from a universal, static self toward variability across cultures.
Key Concepts:
Culture as a Shaper of Self: culture provides shared meanings, values, and beliefs that frame identity.
Variability of the Self: some cultures emphasize individual autonomy (independent self) while others emphasize interdependence and social relationships (interdependent self).
Embeddedness in Social Contexts: the self is not isolated; it is embedded in family, community, and social institutions, all influencing its development and expression.
Dynamic and Evolving: the self is not static; it evolves with life experiences, social interactions, and cultural changes.
Implicit and Explicit Aspects: self includes unconscious (implicit) and conscious (explicit) dimensions.
Influences on the Self:
Family: family structures and dynamics shape initial self-understanding and social placement.
Language: languages and their cultural nuances influence perception and self-expression.
Religion and Belief Systems: religious beliefs and practices impact self-concept, morality, and purpose.
Rites of Passage: rituals marking life-stage transitions (e.g., coming-of-age, marriage) shape identity and social roles.
Essence: contemporary anthropology views the self not as a pre-defined entity but as a dynamic, evolving construct anchored in specific cultural and social contexts.
D. Psychology
The study of how the self and personality develop, including the interplay between individual needs and social factors.
D.1 Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, in a fixed sequence from infancy to adulthood.
Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis—an intrinsic psychological need conflicting with social expectations—and each completed stage helps build a healthy personality via basic virtues.
Basic virtues serve as ego strengths used to resolve later crises.
Stages, ages, conflicts, basic virtues, and descriptions:
Stage 1: 0 ext{-}1 ext{ year} — Trust vs. Mistrust; Basic Virtue: ext{Hope}; Description: Infants learn to trust caregivers to meet basic needs.
Stage 2: 1 ext{-}3 ext{ years} — Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt; Basic Virtue: ext{Will}; Description: Toddlers develop a sense of personal control and independence.
Stage 3: 3 ext{-}6 ext{ years} — Initiative vs. Guilt; Basic Virtue: ext{Purpose}; Description: Children assert control through directing play and social interactions.
Stage 4: 6 ext{-}12 ext{ years} — Industry vs. Inferiority; Basic Virtue: ext{Competence}; Description: Children develop a sense of pride in accomplishments and abilities.
Stage 5: 12 ext{-}18 ext{ years} — Identity vs. Role Confusion; Basic Virtue: ext{Fidelity}; Description: Teens explore personal identity and sense of self.
Stage 6: 18 ext{-}40 ext{ years} — Intimacy vs. Isolation; Basic Virtue: ext{Love}; Description: Young adults form intimate, loving relationships with others.
Stage 7: 40 ext{-}65 ext{ years} — Generativity vs. Stagnation; Basic Virtue: ext{Care}; Description: Adults create or nurture things that will outlast them, contributing to society.
Stage 8: 65^{+} ext{ years} — Ego Integrity vs. Despair; Basic Virtue: ext{Wisdom}; Description: Seniors reflect on life and feel either fulfillment or regret.
D.2 Freud: Psychosexual Development
Freud proposed that personality develops through a sequence of childhood stages, with libido focused on different erogenous zones.
The five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.
Each stage involves specific conflicts that must be resolved for healthy personality development.
D.2.1 The Five Stages (summary)
Stage 1: Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
Primary source of pleasure is the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing).
Fixation can lead to oral habits in adulthood (e.g., smoking, overeating).
Stage 2: Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
Focus on the anus; pleasure from bowel movements and toilet training.
Successful toilet training yields a sense of control; fixation can lead to anal retentive (orderly, controlling) or anal expulsive (messy, rebellious) traits.
Stage 3: Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Genitals become focus of pleasure; awareness of gender differences.
Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls) involve conflicts with the opposite-sex parent and identification with the same-sex parent.
Resolving these complexes is essential for gender role development.
Stage 4: Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
Sexual urges are relatively dormant; energy directed toward social and intellectual pursuits.
Stage 5: Genital Stage (Puberty to death)
Sexual urges re-emerge; focus on forming mature, heterosexual relationships and adult sexuality.
D.3 Kohlberg: Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that moral development occurs through six stages, organized into three levels, assessed via moral dilemmas to reveal reasoning behind choices.
Levels and stages:
Level 1: Preconventional morality
Stage 1: ext{Obedience and Punishment Orientation} — Rules are absolute; obeying them avoids punishment.
Stage 2: ext{Individualism and Exchange} — Actions judged by their benefit to the self; a "what's in it for me" perspective.
Level 2: Conventional morality
Stage 3: ext{Good Interpersonal Relationships} — Emphasis on meeting social expectations and seeking approval.
Stage 4: ext{Maintaining Social Order} — Emphasis on laws, duty, and maintaining social order; most adults operate at this level.
Level 3: Postconventional morality
Stage 5: ext{Social Contract and Individual Rights} — Laws are social contracts that can be changed; respect for different values.
Stage 6: ext{Universal Ethical Principles} — Moral reasoning based on universal principles like justice and equality, even if conflicting with laws; Kohlberg considered this stage rarely reached.
Notes:
Kohlberg used moral dilemmas to test reasoning, not just the outcomes of moral choices.
The progression is not universal for all individuals; some may stay at lower levels depending on context and culture.