Notes on Europe: From World War II to Today's European Union
Europe: From World War II to Today's European Union
Introduction to the European Union
Origins Post-WWII: Europe underwent significant transformation over the last 70 years, starting from the devastation of World War II. There was a strong desire for lasting peace to prevent future conflicts of such a scale.
Evolution of Integration: This process initially led to the formation of the Common Market, which subsequently evolved into the European Union.
Current Status: The European Union is a unique economic and political partnership comprising 27 distinct countries.
Population: It has approximately half a billion citizens.
Economy: Its combined economy constitutes about 20\% of the world's total economic output.
Role: It serves as a crucial forum for European countries to resolve disputes through dialogue ("words rather than with bullets and bombs"), moving away from historical reliance on battlefields.
Global Economic Power: The EU is the world's largest economic grouping, accounting for approximately 20\% of all global trade. It hosts a significant share of the largest multinational corporations and many of the world's most developed countries.
Key Features of the Modern EU
Single Market: Functions as a single market, ensuring the free movement of people, goods, and services among member countries.
Standardized Laws: Possesses a standardized system of laws across its member states.
Common Currency: Most of its countries share a common currency, the euro (adopted in 1999 by 11 countries, with notes/coins in circulation since 2002; now the currency for approximately 300 ext{ million} Europeans).
Schengen Agreement: Many countries have signed this agreement, eliminating internal border controls and passport checks between member states. This area currently encompasses approximately 400 ext{ million} people, though its effectiveness is debated (proponents see it as perfect for free movement; opponents highlight concerns about control and visa entries).
Unified Voice: The EU often speaks with a single voice on the international stage, representing all member countries at organizations like the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Regulatory Structure: It has developed a sophisticated regulatory framework.
EU Institutions and Their Locations
No Official Capital: While the EU has no official capital, Brussels has acquired this status in practical terms.
European Parliament: Has buildings in both Brussels and Strasbourg. It is the directly elected body representing EU citizens.
European Commission: Located in Brussels, it serves as the EU's executive arm, responsible for administering and initiating policies, and is answerable to the Parliament.
European Council/Council of Ministers: Also in Brussels, it meets four times annually.
European Central Bank (ECB): Located in Frankfurt. It is independent of national governments and is responsible for monetary policy in all Eurozone countries, with a mandate to control inflation.
European Court of Justice: Located in Luxembourg, it comprises one judge from each EU country. Its role is to ensure compliance with EU law and the correct interpretation and application of treaties.
Decentralized Locations: The distributed locations of these major institutions reflect political compromises made over 50 years, often seen as the "least worst scenario" due to disagreements over a single designated capital.
Origins of European Integration: Post-World War II Context
Devastation of Europe in 1945
Economic Ruin: The continent's economic structure was severely damaged.
Humanitarian Crisis: Millions were homeless, starving (e.g., people in the French zone of Germany lived on 800 ext{ calories per day} through 1946), and freezing to death.
Infrastructure Collapse: Transport systems were extensively bombed.
France had only a quarter of its pre-war trains.
Italy's road network was a third destroyed.
This made food distribution difficult, despite aid.
The Desire for a New Way
Preventing Nationalism: Many believed European integration was essential to prevent the extreme forms of nationalism that had caused World War II. The architects of the EU recognized nationalism as the root cause of the war and sought to promote an integrated society.
Promoting Trade: The idea of fostering trade was crucial, as it necessitated dialogue and interdependence, thereby naturally discouraging conflict.
Economic Reconstruction: Industrial and agricultural production in 1945 was considerably lower than in 1938, and unemployment was high. There was a strong desire to rebuild economies and ensure future peace and security.
Early Steps Towards European Integration
Potsdam Conference (1945):
Division of Germany: Participants decided to divide Germany and its capital, Berlin, into four zones controlled by Britain, France, the USA, and the Soviet Union.
Purpose: The aim was to weaken Germany, preventing it from initiating another war. This led to the western part of Germany flourishing and becoming a dominant European economy within a decade.
The Marshall Plan (1947-1951):
US Role: The USA, the only major economy largely undamaged by the war, launched the Marshall Plan.
Objectives: To remove European trade barriers, modernize industry, and restore prosperity.
"Enlightened Self-Interest": It was seen as a way to secure the loyalty of Western Europe through massive aid packages, contingent on cooperation among European states. It also aimed to curb the spread of Soviet Communism, despite US Secretary of State George Marshall's denial: "Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but against poverty, desperation, and chaos."
Soviet Reaction: The Soviet Union rejected the plan as "dollar imperialism" and tightened its control over Eastern Bloc countries (e.g., Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia).
Aid Provided: America provided approximately 13 ext{ billion US dollars} in aid to Western European countries over four years.
Benefits for the US: The plan also benefited the US by expanding economic opportunities and creating markets for trade.
Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC): In 1948, participating countries formed the OEEC, many of which are now EU members.
The Emerging Division of Europe and the Cold War
Soviet Bloc Formation: The Soviet Union exerted increasing influence over Eastern Europe, undermining democratic aspirations.
Tactics: They infiltrated print unions to control media, ensuring anti-Soviet stories were suppressed via strikes. They also seized control of police forces, armies, judiciaries, and ultimately governments.
The Iron Curtain Speech (1946):
Winston Churchill: Coined the famous phrase: "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent." This was the first prominent articulation of Europe's division.
Stalin's Response: Described Churchill's speech as a declaration of war.
Cultural Impact: The term "iron curtain" became a common descriptor for Europe's division during the Cold War.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (1949):
Western Alliance: The US formally allied with Canada and Western European countries to form NATO.
Mutual Defense: Members agreed to a policy of mutual defense against external attacks, creating a transatlantic security bridge against the Soviet threat.
Soviet Countermeasures: Stalin responded by forming the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) with Eastern Bloc allies.
Soviet Atomic Bomb (1949):
Detonation: The Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb. While anticipated by the West, it heightened anxiety due to the USSR's expansionist worldview.
Further Steps in European Integration and Cold War Climax
Benelux Economic Union (1944):
Early Treaty: Even before WWII ended, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg's governments-in-exile agreed to form this union.
Goals: To promote free movement of workers, capital, services, and goods, creating tighter economic bonds and a customs union to remove tariff barriers and enhance productivity.
Schuman Declaration (1950):
Proposal: French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed an organized Europe.
Founding Father: He is considered one of the founding fathers of European unity, with May 9th celebrated as Europe Day in his honor.
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC): Led to the establishment of the ECSC, with six member states: the Benelux countries, France, Italy, and West Germany.
Treaty of Rome (1957):
European Economic Community (EEC): Created the EEC, also known as the Common Market.
Expanded Integration: This treaty moved European integration beyond coal and steel into other economic areas, aiming for closer unity.
Warsaw Pact: The Soviet Union formed a military alliance with its Eastern Bloc neighbors.
Berlin Wall (1961):
Construction: East Germany, under Soviet instruction, began building the Berlin Wall on August 13, 1961. It became a potent symbol of the Cold War.
"Shoot to Kill" Orders: East German government explicitly ordered guards to shoot defectors, resulting in over 100 deaths.
John F. Kennedy's Berlin Speech (1963):
Morale Boost: President Kennedy's speech ("Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest post is Berlin") provided a significant morale boost to West Berliners, who lived as an enclave within East Germany and feared occupation.
East Berlin's Plight: Life on the East side of the wall was considerably harsher, with residents effectively imprisoned for nearly 30 years.
Expansion, Democratization, and the Fall of the Wall
EEC Expansion (1973): Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined the EEC, expanding the community from six to nine members.
First Democratic Elections (1979): Citizens of member states gained the right to directly elect members to the European Parliament, moving away from an indirect decision-making process.
Further EEC Expansion (Early 1980s): Greece, Portugal, and Spain also joined the EEC.
Ronald Reagan's Berlin Speech (1987):
Challenge to Gorbachev: President Reagan directly challenged Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev: "Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!"
Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989): On November 9, 1989, Gorbachev allowed Berliners to dismantle the wall.
Collapse of the Soviet Union: This event was soon followed by the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The Maastricht Treaty and the Birth of the European Union
Maastricht Treaty (1992):
Birthplace of the EU: Signed in Maastricht, Netherlands, this treaty marked the formal creation of the European Union as we know it today.
New Challenges: The end of the Cold War introduced new issues, including cross-border migrations and security threats from newly fracturing states.
Major Milestones: The treaty established a unified foreign and security policy, fostered closer cooperation in justice and home affairs, and officially adopted the name "European Union," replacing the earlier "European Community." This name signified a move towards an "ever closer union."
Single Currency Rules: Set clear rules for the creation of a single currency, aiming to facilitate trade and bind member states together.
The Euro: Adopted by 11 countries in 1999, with notes and coins entering circulation in 2002. Today, it is the currency for approximately 300 ext{ million} Europeans.
EU Political System and Governance
The European Institutional Triangle:
European Parliament: Directly elected body representing EU citizens, with legislative functions.
European Council / Council of Ministers: Composed of heads of state or government, it meets four times a year to set the EU's overall political direction and priorities.
European Commission: The executive arm, responsible for administering policies and proposing new legislation. It is accountable to the Parliament.
European Court of Justice: Located in Luxembourg, it ensures that EU law is applied uniformly and that treaties are correctly interpreted.
European Central Bank (ECB): Headquartered in Frankfurt, responsible for monetary policy in the Eurozone, independent of national governments, and tasked with controlling inflation.
Schengen Agreement: Allows for free movement without border controls for about 400 ext{ million} people, but its implementation and implications remain a source of debate regarding national control versus integration.
Symbolism, Challenges, and Future of the EU
EU Flag: Features 12 golden stars in a circle on a blue background.
Symbolism: The number 12 signifies perfection, completeness, and unity (not the number of member states). The circle represents solidarity and harmony among European peoples.
Challenges: The EU faces inherent problems in governing diverse populations with 23 official languages and varied cultural backgrounds.
Future Unification: There's ongoing debate about the extent of future integration. While some countries wish to join, politicians in other member states advocate for leaving.
National Identity: The strong national identities of Europeans suggest that a "United States of Europe" is unlikely.
Prospective Changes: The size and shape of the EU are likely to change. Integration might become less tight, potentially refocusing on trade and economic benefits over deeper political union in the next 50 years.
Global Stature: The EU's population of about half a billion makes it the world's third largest (after China and India), and more than 50\% larger than the US population.
Economic Output: Its combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) surpasses that of the United States, representing nearly a third of the world's total economic output.
Trade: The EU is collectively the world's largest exporter of goods.
Conclusion: The modern EU, with its peaceful discussions and complex bureaucracy, would have been unimaginable to Europeans in 1945 after the devastation of WWII. It has evolved significantly from its origins as a peace initiative into a multifaceted entity that promotes peace, stability, and security for its member countries. The EU is a testament to the idea that nations can come together to overcome historical strife and build a common future. The European Union has its origins in a peace initiative that started after World War II. But look at the Europe of today, and you will see that it has become so much more.