A History of the United Kingdom Constitution and 20th Century Politics

The Constitution of the United Kingdom

• Nature of the Constitution: Unlike many other nations, the United Kingdom does not have a single codified document. Instead, the constitution is comprised of:     * Statutes (Acts of Parliament).     * Law.     * Political conventions.     * Social consensus.

• Historical Foundations and Key Milestones:     * Magna Carta ($1215$): Established the principle of 'common counsel' through parliament.     * English Civil War ($1642$–$1651$): A period of armed conflict and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists.     * ‘Glorious Revolution’ ($1688$): Solidified the supremacy of Parliament over the monarch, the church, and the courts.     * Bill of Rights ($1689$): A foundational piece of the constitution outlining specific constitutional and civil rights.     * Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act, $1928$: This act granted equal voting rights to men and women over the age of $21$.

• Core Principles:     * Parliamentary sovereignty.     * The rule of law.     * Democracy.

• Key Institutions:     * House of Commons: The primary legislative body.     * House of Lords: The second chamber of Parliament.     * UK Supreme Court (Judiciary): The highest court of law.     * Civil Service: The administrative arm of the government.

• The Monarch's Role:     * Acts as a ceremonial figurehead.     * Provides Royal Assent to legislation, making it law.

British Monarchy in the $20^{\text{th}}$ Century

• Edward VII: reigned from $1901$ to $1910$.

• George V: reigned from $1910$ to $1936$.

• Edward VIII: reigned briefly in $1936$ before abdicating.

• George VI: reigned from $1936$ to $1952$.

• Elizabeth II: reigned from $1952$ to present (at time of recording).

Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom ($1900$–$2019$)

Prime Ministers ($1900$–$1945$)

• Marquess of Salisbury: ($1895$–$1902$), Conservative Party.

• Arthur Balfour: ($1902$–$1905$), Conservative Party.

• Henry Campbell-Bannerman: ($1905$–$1908$), Liberal Party.

• Herbert Asquith: ($1908$–$1916$), Liberal Party.

• David Lloyd George: ($1916$–$1922$), Liberal Party.

• Andrew Bonar Law: ($1922$–$1923$), Conservative Party.

• Stanley Baldwin: ($1923$–$1924$), Conservative Party.

• Ramsay MacDonald: ($1924$), Labour Party.

• Stanley Baldwin: ($1924$–$1929$), Conservative Party.

• Ramsay MacDonald: ($1929$–$1935$), Labour Party.

• Stanley Baldwin: ($1935$–$1937$), Conservative Party.

• Neville Chamberlain: ($1937$–$1940$), Conservative Party.

• Winston Churchill: ($1940$–$1945$), Conservative Party.

Prime Ministers ($1945$–$2019$)

• Clement Attlee

• Winston Churchill

• Anthony Eden

• Harold Macmillan

• Alec Douglas-Home

• Edward Heath

• Harold Wilson

• James Callaghan

• Margaret Thatcher

• John Major

• Tony Blair

• Gordon Brown

• David Cameron

• Theresa May

Political Evolution: From ‘New Liberalism’ to Decline

• Late $19^{\text{th}}$ Century: Marked by four governments under William Gladstone.

• Election Victories and Reforms: The Liberal Party achieved significant victories, ushering in 'New Liberalism' reforms.

• Transition of Power in the Liberal Party:     * Henry Campbell-Bannerman ($1905$–$1908$).     * Herbert Asquith ($1908$–$1916$).     * David Lloyd-George ($1916$–$1922$).

• The Rise of Labour: During the $1920 ext{s}$, the Labour Party began to rise as a major political force, eventually leading to the decline of the Liberal Party.

The Parliament Act ($1911$)

• Key Provisions:     * Reduced the power of the House of Lords by removing their absolute veto over legislation.     * Mandated that Parliamentary elections must be held at least every $5$ years.

• Legislative Context:     * Title: AN ACT to make provision with respect to the powers of the House of Lords in relation to those of the House of Commons, and to limit the duration of Parliament.     * Chapter $13$, passed on the $18^{\text{th}}$ of August, $1911$.

The Women’s Suffrage Movement ($1903$–)

• Motto: "Deeds Not Words."

• Key Leaders: Annie Kenney and Christabel Pankhurst, leaders of the WSPU (Women's Social and Political Union).

• Strategies and Struggles:     * The movement called for "The Bill, The Whole Bill."     * The Cat and Mouse Act: Passed by the Liberal government to handle hunger strikers; prisoners were released to gain health and then re-arrested.     * 'The Modern Inquisition': A phrase used to describe the treatment of political prisoners under the Liberal government.     * Public Awareness: Activists urged electors to vote against the Prime Minister and keep Liberals out; publications like The Suffragette were sold for $1^{\text{d}}$.     * Martyrdom: Emily Davidson ($1913$) became a symbol of the movement's sacrifice.

• Temporary Suspension: Suffragette activities were put 'on hold' during the First World War ($1914$–$1918$).

Industry and Labor Unrest ($1912$–$1914$)

• Strike Activity: The period leading up to WWI saw a significant spike in industrial action.

• Statistics on Working Days Lost (in thousands):     * $1891$: Roughly $5,000$.     * $1901$: Low activity.     * $1911$: A sharp rise, exceeding $10,000$, with peaks in $1912$ exceeding $40,000$.     * $1921$: A historic peak reaching approximately $85,000$.     * $1926$: The highest peak, associated with the General Strike, reaching approximately $160,000$.     * Later spikes occurred in the early $1970 ext{s}$ and the mid-$1980 ext{s}$ ($1984$ miners' strike).

Ireland and National Identity

• Home Rule: A significant and disruptive political issue involving concepts of Irish independence.

• The Easter Rising ($1916$): An armed insurrection in Dublin against British rule.

• Events of $1919$:     * Sinn Fein established the Dail Eireann (Irish Constituent Assembly) in Dublin.     * The British government subsequently outlawed the assembly.

Post-WWI Developments ($1919$)

• The Treaty of Versailles: Signed following the First World War.

• Political Progress: Lady Astor became the first woman to sit as a British Member of Parliament (MP).

The Labour Party and Interwar Period

• Governments: The Labour Party held power in $1924$ and from $1929$–$1931$.

• Reform Focus: Primarily centered on education, unemployment insurance, and housing.

• General Strike Relations: The party distanced itself from the General Strike.

• Economic Strategy Failures:     * Failed to effectively address unemployment.     * Attempted rationalization of industries actually worsened economic conditions.     * Implemented a public works scheme, but it was too limited in scope to be effective.

The General Strike ($1926$) and Its Legacy

• Consequences: Created a bitter division between different labor unions.

• Trades Disputes Act ($1927$):     * Placed severe restrictions on unions.     * Made sympathetic strikes illegal.     * Limited picketing.     * Changed the political levy from "Contracting Out" to "Contracting In" (meaning members had to actively choose to pay into the political fund).

• Union Membership: Dropped from $8$ million in $1920$ to $5$ million by $1927$.

Rise of Alternative Political Ideologies

• Fascism: Represented by Oswald Moseley and the BUF (British Union of Fascists).

• Communism: Represented by the CPGB (Communist Party of Great Britain), established in $1920$, led by figures such as Harry Pollitt.

• Regional Nationalism: The Scottish National Party (SNP) was established in $1934$ and remains active.

• The Jarrow March (October $1936$): A demonstration of the impacts of the Great Depression and unemployment.

Crisis and Coalition

• $1931$ Crisis: Resulted in the formation of a National Government.

• Coalition Governments: Necessary due to the pressures of war between $1939$–$1940$ and again from $1940$–$1945$.

International Diplomacy and European Relations

• The Suez Crisis ($1956$): Conflicts in Port Said, Ismailia, and the Suez Canal. Domestic response included protests by the Yorkshire Miners demanding a "peaceful settlement thro U.N.O." and slogans like "No War with Egypt."

• European Coal & Steel Community ($1952$): The UK was not a member.

• Treaty of Rome ($1957$): Established the European Economic Community (EEC).

• UK and the EEC:     * $1963$: UK membership was vetoed by Charles de Gaulle.     * $1970$: General Election becomes a turning point for European policy.

The European Referendum ($1975$)

• The Question: "Do you think the United Kingdom should stay in the European Community (the Common Market)?"

• Campaign Arguments:     * Pro-European (YES): Higher prosperity, employment, and environment. A belief that a united Europe breaks down old prejudices and helps developing countries. Slogans: "Britain is where she belongs… in Europe," "Build Bridges - Not Barriers."     * Anti-European (NO): Cited "European Economic Calamity," Brussels as the "New Capital of Britain," soaring cost of living, trade deficits, and $4$ million unemployed. Slogans: "Set Britain Free from the Common Market," "TREATY OF ROME IS NOT FOR BRITAIN."

• Results ($5$ June $1975$):     * Yes: $17,378,581$ ($67.23\%$).     * No: $8,470,073$ ($32.77\%$).     * Valid votes: $25,848,654$ ($99.79\%$).     * Invalid/Blank: $54,540$ ($0.21\%$).     * Total votes: $25,903,194$.     * Turnout: $64.62\%$ (out of $40,086,677$ registered voters).

The Thatcher and Major Eras ($1975$–$1997$)

• Margaret Thatcher:     * Leader of Conservative Party in $1975$.     * Election Victories: $1979$, $1983$, and $1987$.     * Faced difficulties regarding Europe and was deposed as leader in $1990$.

• Social Democratic Party (SDP): Founded in $1981$, it eventually merged into the Liberal Democrats in $1988$.

• John Major: Prime Minister from $1990$ to $1997$.

• State of the Nation under Major (Andrew Marr perspective):     * EU issues were "perilous" and party-splitting.     * The single currency was considered "toxic."     * General "mood of contempt for politicians."     * Lack of press deference.     * Reforms in health, police, and schools yielded little improvement.     * Post-Cold War world seen as "nastier and less predictable."     * Marred by "Sleaze & Scandal."

The Rise of New Labour ($1997$)

• General Election $1997$:     * Campaign: "New Labour, New Life for Britain."     * Manifesto Vision: Blair expressed belief in a Britain with better schools, hospitals, merit over privilege, and a welfare state run for the "many and not the few."

• Election Results ($1$ May $1997$):     * Turnout: $71.3\%$ ($6.4\%$ decrease from previous).     * Labour (Tony Blair): $418$ seats, $43.2\%$ of popular vote ($13,518,167$ votes). Swing of $8.8\%$.     * Conservative (John Major): $165$ seats, $30.7\%$ of popular vote ($9,600,943$ votes). Swing of $-11.2\%$.     * Liberal Democrats (Paddy Ashdown): $46$ seats, $16.8\%$ of popular vote ($5,242,947$ votes). Swing of $1.0\%$.

• Cultural Impact:     * Media backing: The Sun famously switched support to Blair with the headline "The Sun Backs Blair."     * 'Blair's Babes': Reference to the $101$ female Labour MPs elected in $1997$.     * Slogans and Atmosphere: "Things Can Only Get Better," "Cool Britannia," and "A New Dawn."