Comprehensive Notes on Nigerian Peoples and Culture

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENTITY – NIGERIA

Nigeria is a country situated in the Western region of Africa. It is bounded in the west by the Republic of Benin, on the North by the Republic of Niger, on the North-East by Lake Chad, on the East by the Republic of Cameroun, and in the south by the Atlantic Ocean. Geographically, it possesses a total area of $923,768$ square kilometres, which is further divided into a landed mass of $910,768$ square kilometres and $13,000$ square kilometres of water ways. Most of the country is located within the tropical region. According to the National Population Commission as of August $2019$, the population is approximated at about $200$ million people. This population is roughly equally divided between males and females, as well as between Christians and Muslims.

The vegetation of Nigeria undergoes a progressive change as one moves from the South to the North, transitioning from tropical rain forest to savannah grassland. The climate typically features two main seasons: the rainy season and the dry season, which are interspersed by the harmattan season. Rainfall patterns vary across the territory, being heaviest in the southern regions and thinnest in the northern regions. Demographic diversity is a hallmark of the nation, with about $500$ different ethnic groups existing within its boundaries. The major ethnic groups include the Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Kanuri, Fulani, Bini, Tiv, Ijaw, and Nupe. Some specific states, such as Kogi and Adamawa, are home to more than ten different ethnic groups, each speaking distinct languages. These ethnic, cultural, and economic variations, coupled with long years of intermingling, have produced the rich cultures and art forms that constitute the heritage of modern Nigeria.

LINGUISTIC CLASSIFICATIONS AND NATIONAL POLICY

Nigeria is recognized as one of the principal linguistic crossroads of Africa. Following the classification by J.H. Greenberg, African languages are distinguished into four major groups called phyla. In linguistics, a phylum refers to a large division of possibly related languages or a major language family not subordinate to another. The four phyla are: ($1$) Afro-Asiatic, ($2$) Khoisan, ($3$) Niger-Congo, and ($4$) Nilo-Saharan. In Nigeria, the majority of languages belong to the Niger-Congo phylum. However, there is a substantial number belonging to the Afro-Asiatic phylum, specifically the Chadic family, which includes Hausa, Marghi, Pabir-Bura, Bole, Karekare, and Tangale. The Nilo-Saharan phylum is represented by Kanuri, Dandi, Teda, and Zanna. Notably, there are no languages from the Khoisan phylum found in Nigeria.

To manage this linguistic diversity, the Federal Government encourages the use of English Language as a lingua franca for administration, education, trade, and commerce. Simultaneously, efforts are being made to evolve a national language through the National Policy on Education. This policy makes it mandatory for the language of the immediate environment or community to be the medium of communication in early childhood education. At the Junior Secondary School level, students must be taught and examined in one of the three major indigenous languages: Hausa, Igbo, or Yoruba. Senior Secondary School students are required to offer an indigenous Nigerian language other than their mother tongue. Beyond the national level, different states have dominant languages that serve as uniting factors.

CITIZENSHIP IN NIGERIA: DEFINITIONS AND TYPES

Citizenship represents the status of a person recognized under the constitution of a country or sovereign state as a legal member. This status grants the individual access to all benefits and rights stated in the constitution. According to The Oxford Advanced Dictionary of Current English, a citizen is one who has full rights in a State by birth or by gaining such rights. Nigerian citizenship is governed by the Nigerian Nationality Law, as established in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

There are four primary types of citizenship in Nigeria. The first is Citizenship by Birth, which is governed by the principle of Jus Sanguinis (blood relation/descent) rather than Jus Soli (territory of birth). This means at least one parent must be a Nigerian for a child to be a citizen, regardless of whether the birth occurred inside or outside Nigeria. Jus Soli, the principle where anyone born in a territory is a citizen (as seen in the $14^{th}$ Amendment of the USA), does not automatically confer citizenship in Nigeria. The second type is Citizenship by Registration, available to foreign women married to Nigerian men, individuals of age ($17$ or above) born outside the country with Nigerian grandparents, and foreign children adopted by Nigerian parents. Registration and Naturalization are collectively referred to as Citizenship by Legal Processes.

NATURALIZATION AND HONORARY CITIZENSHIP

Citizenship by Naturalization is the third type and applies to individuals of full age who have lived in Nigeria for at least $15$ years and intend to continue residing there. Such persons must be familiar with Nigerian customs and language and be self-supporting. There are three forms of naturalization: ($1$) Direct Naturalization, where an individual fulfills legal prerequisites such as $15$ years of residence (or $15$ years out of $20$ non-continuous years, including $12$ consecutive months preceding the application), good character, and acceptance by the local community; ($2$) Derivative Naturalization, where a spouse or child acquires status through a relative's direct naturalization; and ($3$) Collective Naturalization, where a group in a defined territory acquires citizenship by treaty or statute. Finally, there is Honorary Citizenship, a symbolic status bestowed by the government on admirable foreigners, such as Nelson Mandela or Emmanuel Macron. This is symbolic and does not confer the rights and privileges of conventional citizenship or change the recipient's nationality.

LEGAL PROVISIONS AND THE ORIGINS OF CITIZENSHIP

The legal framework for obtaining Nigerian citizenship is found in Chapter $3$ of the $1999$ Constitution, known as the Nigerian Citizenship Act. Section $25$ details citizenship by birth, specifying that those born in Nigeria after October $1, 1960$, must have at least one parent or grandparent belonging to an indigenous Nigerian community. Section $26$ covers registration, requiring the President's satisfaction regarding the applicant's character and intention to domicile, as well as the taking of an Oath of Allegiance. Section $27$ handles naturalization, requiring full age, good character, community assimilation, and potential contribution to Nigeria's advancement. The Nigerian Nationality Law also permits persons of Nigerian descent to hold dual nationality and public office.

The concept of citizenship has ancient and contemporary origins. Ancient origins are traced to Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, who viewed citizens as members of the ruling or aristocratic class (philosopher-kings and guardians). In their view, those outside this class were "ordinary persons" governed by passion rather than reason. Contemporary origins emerged from the $1789$ Declaration of the Rights of Man in France and the $1776$ American Declaration of Independence, which established that all men are created equal and possess universal rights.

RIGHTS, PRIVILEGES, AND OBLIGATIONS OF CITIZENS

In any State, individuals possess rights and privileges, collectively known as civil liberty. Okoli and Okoli ($1990$) group these into Political Rights and Civil Rights. Political Rights include the entitlement of every adult citizen to vote or be voted for. Civil Rights are inherent and protected by the constitution, including rights to life, dignity, personal liberty, fair hearing, freedom of thought, private life, assembly, movement, and freedom from discrimination. Civil rights are generally justiciable, meaning they are legally enforceable in court. In contrast, socio-economic rights (like right to food or tertiary education) are non-justiciable in Nigeria, serving as moral guidelines and national aspirations rather than enforceable legal mandates.

Along with rights come obligations to the State. A Nigerian citizen is expected to: ($1$) place the interest of the State before any other interest; ($2$) pay taxes promptly; ($3$) obey the laws of the State; ($4$) defend the State against internal and external enemies; ($5$) uphold the honour and dignity of the State; and ($6$) respect the symbols and symbolism of the State.

THE YORUBA: ORIGINS AND SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

The Yoruba people, identified by Pacheco Pereira in $1500$ as the Lucumi and by $19^{th}$-century missionaries as the Aku, are primarily located in South-Western and Central Nigeria (Oyo, Osun, Ogun, Ondo, Lagos, Kwara, and Kogi). Archaeological evidence at Iwo Eleru dates their presence to $9000$ BCE, though the ethnic group is believed to have formed between $2000$ and $1000$ BC. One version of their origin, recorded by Sultan Mohammed Bello in $1812$, claims descent from Nimrod (Lamurudu). Rev. Samuel Johnson's version ($1950$) suggests they migrated from Egypt or the "East" to Ile-Ife under Oduduwa. Alternatively, the Oke Oramfe legend in Ile-Ife claims the world was created there when Oduduwa, using earth and a cockerel, formed land over water after Obatala became intoxicated and lost his authority.

The Yoruba political system is centered on the Oba, an absolute ruler with divine authority whose power is checked by institutions. In the Oyo Empire, founded in the $15^{th}$ century, the Alaafin (king) was the supreme head but was regulated by the Oyomesi, a council of seven kingmakers headed by the Bashorun. A disgraced Alaafin was expected to commit suicide. Other components of government included the Ogboni Cult, which played a mediatory role between the Alaafin and Oyomesi, and an organized Army headed by the Aare-Ona-Kankanfo. Provincial governments were administered by princes and Baales, with the Alaafin using the annual Bere festival to renew their allegiance.

THE BENIN KINGDOM (BINI)

The Bini were among the first to interact with Europeans, with the Portuguese Ruy de Sequeira arriving in $1472$ and Alfonso de Aviero in $1484$. They exchanged ambassadors with Portugal between $1481$ and $1504$. Origins of the Bini include Egharevba’s version of migration from Egypt and Igbafe’s mythological version where the youngest child of the High God (Osanobua) created land using a snail shell. The first era of Benin history was the Ogiso period (Kings of the Sky), starting with Igbodo and ending with Owodo, whose son Ekaladeran was banished. Ekaladeran eventually reached Ife, and his son Oranmiyan returned to Benin to establish the Eweka dynasty, though he later returned to Ife, leaving his son Eweka I to rule.

Benin's political system was unique and centered on the Oba, who held both civil and religious authority. Succession followed primogeniture (the first surviving son). The society was divided into the nobility (Adesotu) and commoners (Ighiotu). The nobility comprised three groups: Uzama, Eghaevbo n' Ogbe (palace chiefs), and Eghaevbo n' ore (town chiefs). Commoners were organized into professional guilds (carvers, brass-workers, etc.) that functioned similarly to village administrations.

THE IGBO PEOPLE: ACEPHALOUS AND SEGMENTARY SOCIETIES

The Igbo are known for their segmentary or acephalous way of life, lacking centralized states and kings. They are predominantly farmers and traders who share a common culture and the use of the Ofo (staff of authority). Origins are highly controversial; theories include migration from the Middle East, an indigenous homeland in Igboland, the Nri version (where Eri descended from the sky), or migration from Israel (based on cultural similarities to ancient Hebrews). The lack of centralized palaces makes reconciling these stories difficult.

Socio-political organization was based on direct democracy at the village level. Power was decentralized, and the Amala Oha (General Assembly) performed legislative functions. Meetings were held in the village square, and decisions were final. Status was based on individual capability and age rather than family heritage. Age sets (youths, middle-aged, and elders) each had specific rights and responsibilities in the administration of the village.

OTHER SOUTHERN GROUPS: ITSEKIRI, URHOBO, AND IJAW

The Itsekiri claim descent from the sea god Umale-Okun and a relationship with Iginuwa, a Bini prince who founded a kingdom at Ode Itsekiri around $1473$ after becoming unpopular in Benin. The Itsekiri kingdom is ruled by the Olu and a council of seven nobles called Ojoye. The Urhobo people, found in the Niger Delta, have dual origin stories: some claim Ijaw roots while others claim Bini roots. Unlike the Itsekiri, the Urhobo live in fragmented settlements, each headed by an Ovie, with age sets performing specific duties.

The Ijaw are a major group along the coastal belts of Southern Nigeria, categorized into Western, Central, and Eastern Delta groups. Scholars like Kenneth Dike and E.J. Alagoa have debated their origins, with archaeological evidence suggesting Eastern Delta communities were settled earliest. They speak Izon and other related languages. Politically, they utilized the "House System" and were organized into states like Bonny, Kalabari, and Nembe. The village head is the Amanyanabo. Their cosmology includes a High God (Tamuno), an ancestor cult, and a belief in the water goddess (Owu).

THE HAUSA AND FULANI OF NORTHERN NIGERIA

The Hausa are a politically dominant group concentrated in the North-Western region, with a population estimated at $20$ million by the year $2000$. They converted to Islam by the $14^{th}$ century and developed independent city-states that competed for Saharan trade. The Bayajidda legend is the principal oral tradition, claiming that Abu Yazid from Baghdad arrived in Daura, killed a sacred snake, and married the Queen. Their descendants formed the Hausa Bakwai (seven states). The Hausa political head is the Sarki, who holds political and spiritual power and is assisted by titles like Galadima and Madawaki. Rural non-Muslim Hausa are called Maguzawa and worship nature spirits (bori).

The Fulani (Fulbe) are largely nomadic and originated from the Futa Jalon highlands. They are categorized as Fulanin Daji (nomadic) and Fulanin Gida (sedentary). They live by a code of behavior called Pulaaku. Under Shehu Usman Danfodiyo, the Fulani led a Jihad in the $19^{th}$ century that revived Islam and unified Hausaland into a caliphate where THEY functioned as administrators and scholars.

KANEM-BORNU, NUPE, JUKUN, TIV, AND IGALA

The Kanem-Bornu (Kanuri) people are centered North-East of Lake Chad. Their origins involve the So people or the Arab hero Saif bin Dhi Yazan, who founded the Saifawa dynasty. The ruler is the Mai, assisted by the Magira (Queen Mother) and the Nokena (Council of Twelve). The Nupe located in the Niger-Benue valleys, were founded by Tsoede (an Idah prince) in the $16^{th}$ century. The Etsu Nupe is the head of the kingdom and enjoyed divine status. The Jukun (Kwararafa) operated a theocracy under the Aku Uka, who was seen as the representative of the gods, though his power was checked by the success of the harvest and the Achuwo (Prime Minister).

The Tiv are the largest ethnic group in the middle Benue basin and utilize a highly decentralized segmentary system. They believe they descend from a common ancestor named Tiv. The largest entity is the Tsombor (family group), governed by the Mbavessen (elder). The Igala people, with their capital at Idah, trace their state development to Abutu Eje or Achadu. Their ruler, the Attah, is the head of a structure that helped the Igala break away from Jukun rule.

DYNAMICS OF EVOLUTION: BRITISH CONTACT AND AMALGAMATION

The creation of Nigeria as a political unit was driven by the British, although the Portuguese were the first to arrive ($1472$). The name "Nigeria" was coined by Flora Shaw in $1899$. Initial contact was via the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, which the British abolished in the early $19^{th}$ century, moving into "legitimate commerce" and "Gun-boat" politics. Lagos was annexed in $1861$. Resistance from leaders like Jaja of Opobo and Ovonramwen of Benin failed to stop British conquest.

Amalgamation occurred in two stages: ($1$) May $1906$, where the Lagos Colony was merged with Southern Nigeria for economic reasons; and ($2$) January $1914$, where Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated under Lord Frederick Lugard. The primary aim was to use surpluses from the South to cover administration costs in the North. This policy has been criticized for being divisive and failing to create a uniform style of administration, leaving the regions separate in character despite a common political head.

POST-INDEPENDENCE NIGERIA AND LEADERSHIP

Nigeria gained independence on October $1, 1960$, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe as Governor-General (later President in $1963$). The political history since then has been marked by several transitions:

1. January $1966$: First military coup (Major Nzeogwu); Gen. Aguiyi-Ironsi becomes Head of State.

2. July $1966$: Counter-coup; Gen. Yakubu Gowon takes power.

3. $1975$: Bloodless coup; Gen. Murtala Muhammed becomes Head of State.

4. $1976$: Assassination of Muhammed; Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo takes power.

5. $1979$: Return to democracy (Second Republic); Alh. Shehu Shagari elected President.

6. December $31, 1983$: Military coup; Maj. Gen. Muhammadu Buhari takes power.

7. August $1985$: Coup; Gen. Ibrahim Babangida becomes Military President.

8. August $1993$: Babangida "steps aside"; Chief Ernest Shonekan heads Interim Government.

9. November $1993$: Gen. Sani Abacha seizes power.

10. June $8, 1998$: Abacha dies; Maj. Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar takes power.

11. May $1999$: Return to democracy; Olusegun Obasanjo elected Civilian President.

12. $2007$: Umaru Musa Yar’Adua sworn in.

13. $2010$: Yar’Adua dies; Goodluck Jonathan sworn in.

14. May $29, 2015$: Muhammadu Buhari sworn in as Civilian President (re-elected in $2019$).