Criminal Profiling & Psychology of Crime: chapter 3
Criminal Profiling
Definition: A technique that utilizes behavioral insights to understand the characteristics of specific criminals.
Purpose: To narrow down criminal investigations to a smaller subset of potential suspects who exhibit particular behavioral and personality traits.
Limitation: It does not identify a single individual as the culprit.
Identifiable Characteristics: Criminal profiling can reveal important demographic and personal details about a potential perpetrator, including:
Psychopathology
Family history
Educational background
Legal history
Personal habits and social interests
Organized vs. Disorganized Criminals (Profiling Framework)
This framework is used to categorize criminals based on their behaviors, offering insights into their personality and methods. The following table contrasts characteristics of organized and disorganized offenders:
Characteristic | Organized Criminal | Disorganized Criminal |
|---|---|---|
Victims | Most often strangers | Anybody; often characterized by very poor relationships with women |
Crime Scene | Staged; the body is often transported away from the scene | No staging; the body is typically left where killed |
Weapon | Carried with them; taken with them after the crime | A weapon of opportunity; the attack is often frenzied |
Childhood | Described as a troublemaker | Forgettable, unremarkable |
Personality | Angry; often attractive, intelligent, possessing strong verbal skills; problems with authority | Internalized anger; unattractive; low self-esteem; history of suicide attempts; not articulate |
Interaction with Women | Talks to women | Does not talk to or approach women; anxious |
Publicity | Likes publicity; often gets involved with the media | No interest in publicity |
Psychology of Crime
Crime as a Major Concern
Crime is a significant concern for most Americans, influencing daily routines and perceptions of safety.
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS): A primary tool used to gather data on crime rates and victim experiences.
Fear of Crime
Paradox: Americans often remain fearful of crime even during periods when crime rates are declining.
Location of Fear: This fear is exacerbated when crime occurs in places people typically feel safe.
Role of Publicity: Constant -hour access to crime news and extensive media coverage contributes significantly to public fear and anxiety about crime.
Modern Theories of Crime
Four main approaches or schools of thought attempt to explain criminal behavior:
Sociological Theories: Emphasize environmental factors.
Biological Theories: Focus on genetic predispositions and neuropsychological abnormalities.
Psychological Theories: Highlight individual differences in thinking and feeling.
Social-Psychological Theories: Stress that crime is learned through social interaction.
Important Note: Most research into criminal behavior predominantly focuses on men, indicating a potential gap in understanding female criminality.
Sociological Theories of Crime
These theories stress the importance of environmental factors in shaping criminal behavior.
Structural Theories:
Core Idea: Crime results from dysfunctional social arrangements that prevent individuals from achieving legitimate goals.
Examples of Dysfunctional Arrangements: Poor schooling, economic hardships, and overall community disorganization.
Differential Opportunity Theory: Proposes that individuals from lower socioeconomic statuses aspire to succeed through legal means but lack the opportunities to do so, leading to frustration and potentially crime.
Limitations of Differential Opportunity Theory:
Little empirical support.
Does not adequately explain why poor people do not universally commit crime at higher rates (or are not just caught more frequently).
Fails to account for certain types of criminal behavior.
Subcultural Theories:
Core Idea: Groups endorse values and norms that directly conflict with the law, fostering criminal behavior.
Example: Gangs are a common example, enforcing unique rules that may involve illegal activities, but other groups can also exhibit such conflicting norms.
Biological Theories of Crime
These theories suggest that behavior, including criminal behavior, is a result of genetic predispositions or neuropsychological abnormalities.
Research Evidence:
Twin Studies: Studies comparing identical and fraternal twins show approximately a heritability for certain criminal behaviors, particularly aggressive and antisocial behaviors.
Adoption Studies: Research such as that by Cloninger et al. () and Tehrani & Mednick () found that adopted men whose biological parents had a criminal history were as likely to engage in criminal activity themselves.
Examples of Heritable Characteristics/Neuropsychological Abnormalities:
Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex: Can lead to impulsivity and poor decision-making.
Lower IQ: Offenders often exhibit lower IQs, which may impair their ability to:
Postpone impulsive actions.
Employ effective problem-solving strategies.
Achieve academic success.
Causal Relationship: IQ deficits are reliably observed before offending begins, suggesting a potential causal link.
Counter-Example: Edmund Kemper, the "co-ed killer," had an IQ of , demonstrating that high intelligence does not preclude criminal behavior.
Autonomic Nervous System Differences:
Physiological Arousal: The Autonomic Nervous System controls physiological responses to emotional arousal (e.g., sweaty palms when nervous).
Low Arousal: Some offenders exhibit chronically low levels of autonomic arousal and weaker physiological reactions to stimulation.
Consequences: This can lead to poor behavioral control and a high need for extra stimulation, which may be gratified through aggressive thrill-seeking.
Psychological Theories of Crime
These theories emphasize individual differences in how people think and feel about their actions.
Psychopathy
Definition: A psychopath is an individual who engages in frequent, repetitive criminal activity with little or no remorse.
Control Tactics: They often use charisma, manipulation, intimidation, sex, and violence to control others.
Emotional Mimicry: Psychopaths can skillfully mimic human emotions despite not genuinely experiencing them.
**Profile of a Psychopath (Characteristics):
Deceitful and manipulative
Lack a conscience
Superficial charm
Arrogant
Lack empathy
Selfish and callous
Irresponsible, always having excuses for their behavior
Issues with executive functioning
Exhibit less anxiety in the face of aversive stimuli
May come from dysfunctional families
Diagnostic Classification: While "Psychopathy" is not an official diagnosis in the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), its characteristics are captured by:
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) in adults.
Conduct Disorder with callous-unemotional traits in youth.
Measuring Psychopathy:
PCL-R (Hare Psychopathy Checklist – Revised): This is the primary tool used for assessing psychopathy and is frequently used in legal contexts.
Controversies: The PCL-R is controversial because it relies on both self-report and extensive corroboration, and its validity has not been fully verified for adolescents or female offenders.
Social-Psychological Theories of Crime
These theories propose that criminal behavior is primarily learned through social interaction.
Learning Theories
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): This theory posits that most human behavior, including criminal behavior, is learned primarily through observation and modeling of others.
Social Labeling Theory
Focus: Instead of asking why people commit crimes, this theory asks why some people are seen as “criminals”.
Core Idea: Criminal behavior is a consequence of the labels society assigns to certain individuals. Being labeled as a "criminal" can lead to a "self-fulfilling prophecy."
Example: "Returning Citizens" (formerly known as "ex-cons") often face societal labels and stigma that can impede their reintegration and perpetuate negative cycles.
Which Theory Best Accounts for Crime?
Multifactorial Nature: It's widely understood that several factors contribute to crime, rather than a single unifying theory.
Four-Step Process for Understanding Crime: This integrated approach considers a developmental pathway:
Antecedents: Initial predisposing factors, including biological and psychological predispositions, as well as environmental factors.
Early Indicators: Initial signs such as early-onset aggression and conduct disorder.
Developmental Processes: Crucial "forks in the road" or turning points, involving factors like association with delinquent versus prosocial peers, substance abuse, and academic struggles.
Maintenance Variables: Factors that sustain the cycle of criminal behavior, such as struggles with re-entry into society, peer influence, and social labeling.