Regents Biology Review Flashcards

Claim 1 – Structure & Function

• Levels of Biological Organization
  • Cell → Tissue → Organ → System → Organism
• Organs work together to maintain homeostasis (e.g., lungs and heart balance O₂ and CO₂).
• Cells are the smallest unit of life (atoms, molecules, and organelles are not living).

Negative Feedback

• A response that returns the body to normal conditions.
  • Example: High blood sugar → pancreas releases insulin → blood sugar decreases.

DNA → Protein → Trait

• The order of DNA bases determines the amino acid sequence → protein shape → trait.
• Transcription (nucleus): DNA → mRNA
• Translation (ribosome): mRNA → amino acid chain → protein folding
• All cells have the same DNA, but only specific genes are expressed in each cell type (gene expression).

Body Systems

• Circulatory: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste via blood (heart, blood vessels).
• Excretory: Removes wastes like urea and CO₂; maintains water and salt balance (kidneys, lungs, skin).
• Nervous: Sends electrical signals to detect and respond to stimuli (brain, spinal cord, nerves).
• Respiratory: Exchanges gases—brings in O₂ and releases CO₂ (lungs, trachea).
• Immune: Protects against pathogens using white blood cells, antibodies, lymph nodes.
• Reproductive: Produces gametes; allows fertilization and development of offspring.

Proteins and Their Functions

• Proteins are folded chains of amino acids that perform many roles:
  • Enzymes speed up chemical reactions (e.g., digestion).
  • Antibodies recognize and help destroy pathogens.
  • Receptors receive signals (e.g., hormones, neurotransmitters).
  • Structural proteins (e.g., collagen, keratin) provide support.
  • Transport proteins move substances across membranes.

Receptors & Shape-Fits-Function Rule

• A molecule’s shape determines how it interacts.
  • Example: Insulin fits only into insulin receptors. Changes in shape (mutation, pH/temperature shifts) can prevent binding.

Diffusion vs. Osmosis

• Isotonic = no net movement
• Hypotonic = cell gains water
• Hypertonic = cell loses water

Essential Organelles

• Nucleus: stores DNA
• Ribosome: builds proteins
• Mitochondria: releases energy (ATP)
• Chloroplast: makes glucose using light
• Cell membrane: controls entry/exit, site of diffusion/osmosis

Mitosis

• Makes identical body cells (for growth and repair)

Claim 2 – Matter & Energy in Organisms & Ecosystems

Photosynthesis (Plants only – in chloroplasts)

• 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
• Stores energy in glucose.

Cellular Respiration (All living things – in mitochondria)

• C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + ATP
• Releases energy for cells to use.

Energy Flow

• Sunlight → Producers → Consumers
• Only 10% of energy is passed to the next level; most is lost as heat.

Eutrophication

• Runoff adds extra nitrogen/phosphorus → algae bloom → oxygen drops → fish die.
• Demonstrates how changes in nutrient cycles disrupt ecosystems.

Claim 3 – Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems

Carrying Capacity

• Max population size the environment can support long-term.
• Affected by biotic and abiotic factors
  • Biotic- living (predators, competition, living prey)
  • Abiotic- nonliving (temperature, pH, precipitation, soil)

Population Growth

• Exponential (J-curve): rapid growth with abundant resources
• Logistic (S-curve): slows as it nears carrying capacity

Succession

• After disturbance (e.g., fire), ecosystems recover in predictable stages; biodiversity increases over time.

Species Interactions

• Mutualism (+/+)
• Commensalism (+/0)
• Parasitism (+/–)
• Group behaviors (e.g., schooling) reduce predation risk.

Claim 4 – Inheritance & Variation of Traits

Meiosis

• Makes gametes with half the chromosomes (egg/sperm).
• Crossing over during Prophase I swaps genes, increasing variation.
• Errors here can cause inherited mutations.

Mutations

• Change in DNA sequence (insertion, deletion, substitution)
  • Gamete mutations (DNA changes in eggs or sperm) can be inherited.
  • Body cell mutations (e.g., cancer) only affect the individual.
  • Can be caused by radiation, chemicals, or replication errors.
  • Results: helpful, harmful, or neutral.
  • Will result in changes during protein synthesis- the protein may be built differently and have a different function due to the change in shape.

Genetics Toolkit

• Genotype = gene version, like the letter code (e.g., Bb)
• Phenotype = physical trait (e.g., brown eyes)
• Dominant vs. Recessive
• Punnett Squares show possible offspring genotypes
• Sex-linked traits (e.g., colorblindness) often carried on X chromosome.

Claim 5 – Natural Selection & Evolution

Four Ingredients of Natural Selection

1. Variation (from mutations and crossing over)r
2. Overproduction of offspring
3. Competition for limited resources
4. Differential survival—better traits = more offspring

• Summary: Variation exists → overproduction → competition → best-adapted survive & reproduce → traits become more common.

Evolution Evidence

• Fossils, DNA/embryo similarities, homologous structures.

Speciation

• Long-term isolation → populations evolve into new species.

Evolutionary Trade-Off

• Example: Fire ant b allele helps some social behavior but makes BB genotype queens fail—so both B and b persist.

Claim 6 – Earth’s Systems & Life Co-evolution

Carbon Cycle

• Photosynthesis removes CO₂
• Respiration, decomposition, and burning fossil fuels return CO₂
• More CO₂ → stronger greenhouse effect

Great Oxygenation Event

• Early photosynthetic bacteria released O₂ → aerobic life evolved
• O₂ also formed ozone layer (O₃) → protected from UV radiation

Claim 7 – Engineering Design

• Criteria = goals (e.g., bridge supports 100 kg)
• Constraints = limits (e.g., budget, materials)
• Design Cycle = define → brainstorm → prototype → test → improve → explain

Vocabulary List

• ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the main energy carrier in cells.
• DNA: Genetic material found in all living organisms.
• abiotic: Non-living parts of an ecosystem (e.g., sunlight, temperature).
• adaptation: A trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce.
• advantageous trait: A trait that increases an organism's fitness in a given environment.
• allele: Different forms of a gene (e.g., dominant or recessive).
• amino acid sequence: The order of amino acids in a protein; determines its structure and function.
• anaerobic respiration: Energy production in cells without oxygen; less efficient than aerobic.
• antibody: A protein produced by the immune system to identify and neutralize pathogens.
• biodiversity: The variety of life in an area, important for ecosystem stability.
• biotic: Living components of an ecosystem.
• carbohydrate: Organic molecule used for energy (sugars and starches).
• carrying capacity: The maximum population size an environment can support.
• causational evidence: Evidence that shows one factor directly causes a change in another. Example: Bacteria exposed to antibiotics die, showing the antibiotic causes bacterial death.
• cell differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.
• cell receptor: A protein that receives signals and initiates a response.
• cellular respiration: The process by which cells release energy from glucose.
• chloroplast: Organelle in plants where photosynthesis takes place.
• chromosome: A structure made of DNA that contains many genes.
• circulatory system: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.
• climate change: Long-term changes in global temperature and weather patterns.
• combustion: A chemical reaction that releases energy by burning carbon-based substances.
• common ancestry: The idea that different species share a common evolutionary origin.
• competition: Organisms fighting for the same limited resources.
• correlational evidence: Evidence that shows a relationship between two variables, but not necessarily cause and effect. Example: Higher temperatures correlate with increased plant growth, but other factors may be involved.
• cytoplasm: The fluid inside a cell that holds organelles.
• decomposer: Organism that breaks down dead material and recycles nutrients.
• diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
• ecological succession: The natural process of change in an ecosystem over time.
• ecosystem: A community of living and nonliving things interacting in an environment.
• enzyme: Protein that speeds up chemical reactions.
• eutrophication: Nutrient pollution that causes overgrowth of algae and depletes oxygen.
• evidence: Scientific data used to support or refute a claim.
• extinction: When all individuals of a species die out.
• fossil record: Physical evidence of organisms from the past.
• gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
• genetic engineering: Direct manipulation of an organism’s DNA.
• genetic variation: Differences in DNA among individuals in a population.
• glucose: A sugar that is a major source of energy for cells.
• homeostasis: The process of maintaining a stable internal environment.
• hormone: Chemical messenger that regulates body activities.
• immune response: The body’s defense against pathogens.
• invasive species: A non-native species that spreads and disrupts an ecosystem.
• meiosis: Cell division that produces gametes with half the usual number of chromosomes.
• membrane: The boundary that controls what enters and exits a cell.
• mitochondria: Organelle that performs cellular respiration to release energy.
• mitosis: Cell division that creates two identical cells.
• mutation: A change in DNA that may affect an organism's traits.
• natural selection: The process by which better-adapted organisms survive and reproduce more.
• nucleus: The cell organelle that contains DNA.
• nutrient uptake: Absorption of nutrients by cells or organisms.
• osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.
• photosynthesis: Process plants use to make food using sunlight, CO₂, and water.
• pollution: Harmful substances added to the environment.
• probability: The likelihood of an event occurring; used in genetics.
• protein: Molecule made of amino acids that performs many body functions.
• protein structure: The specific shape of a protein that determines its function.
• reproduction: The biological process of producing offspring.
• respiratory system: Takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
• sexual reproduction: Reproduction involving the combination of genetic material from two parents.
• specialized cells: Cells that have a specific function within an organism.
• stimuli: Changes in the environment that cause a response in an organism.
• structural protein: Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues.
• system: A group of parts that work together to perform a function.
• trait: A characteristic determined by genes.
• transcribed: The process where DNA is copied into RNA.
• translated: The process where RNA is used to build a protein.
• trophic level: A position in a food chain based on how energy is obtained.
• urbanization: The growth of cities, often affecting ecosystems.
• vacuole: Organelle that stores materials like water and nutrients.
• variation: Differences among individuals of a species.
• water delivery: Movement of water within organisms or ecosystems.

Test-Taking Tips for Regents Biology

General Tips

1. Read the question carefully — especially the verbs.
   • Words like “explain,” “support with evidence,” “identify,” or “refute” tell you what kind of response is expected.
   • Underline or mentally highlight terms like “using data,” “model,” “process,” “biotic/abiotic,” or “claim.”
2. Pay close attention to questions that ask you to “support or refute” a claim.
   • Often, the best answer is to refute, especially if the claim makes a broad assumption and the evidence is limited.
3. Use the data provided!
   • Many questions are based on graphs, models, or tables. Don't ignore them.
   • Make sure your answer actually references numbers or patterns when required, especially if the question says to provide “quantitative” or “numerical” data.
4. Circle or underline key numbers and trends in graphs and tables before answering.
   • Watch for words like increase/decrease, rate, proportion, stability, carrying capacity.
5. If a model is shown, explain how its parts interact.
   • Think about inputs and outputs, cause and effect, or feedback loops (e.g., salt glands in iguanas).

Constructed-Response Tips

6. Use the CER method when writing extended responses:
   • Claim: Make a clear statement.
   • Evidence: Use specific info from the question or data.
   • Reasoning: Explain why the evidence supports your claim.
7. Write in full sentences and include 1–2 pieces of evidence, even for 1-point answers.
8. Avoid vague answers like “it changes” or “it helps.” Instead, be specific:
   • ✗ “The temperature affects them.”
   • ✓ “Higher temperatures cause coral to eject algae, leading to bleaching and death.”

Patterns in the Questions

9. Most models will focus on a process. Be ready to:
   • Identify inputs and outputs (like CO₂ and O₂ in photosynthesis or respiration).
   • Label steps (like transcription and translation in protein synthesis).
   • Connect structures to function (like salt glands to homeostasis).
10. For mutation/genetic questions:
    • If the mutation is in gametes, it can be inherited.
    • If it’s in body cells, it only affects the individual.
11. If evolution or natural selection is mentioned, think:
    • Which traits help organisms survive and reproduce more? How?
    • Are there genetic variations that allow for adaptation?

Trickier Scenarios

12. If a question asks about “constraints” in design, refer to limits like cost, materials, or environmental impact depending on the question wording. Make sure you are answering the question, what types of constraints is it asking for specifically?
13. Don’t assume the claim in the question is correct. The Regents often gives incorrect claims to test your reasoning skills.
14. When in doubt, eliminate clearly wrong answers and make your best choice from the remaining ones. Remember to manage your time effectively and stay calm throughout the exam. Good luck! Also remember to wear comfortable clothes. Layers are preferable. That way, you will be prepared if the room is too hot or too cold. Bring water and snacks, if allowed. This tip is relevant to the task because the provided text is regarding creating notes for the upcoming exam. This would be a helpful tip to add to the notes, as well. But it does not contribute, in any way, to the topic of Biology.