Landforms: Glaciation significantly shaped Northern Europe's landforms during the last ice age.
Glaciers scoured the land, creating fjords, scraping plains flat, and making mountains steeper.
Fjords are long, narrow, steep-sided inlets now filled with seawater.
The weight of the ice (over one mile thick) pressed the land into the Earth’s mantle, leading to continental rebound as the land rises after the ice melts.
Melting glaciers gouged the surface, leaving islands, rivers, streams, and lakes.
Countries: Northern Europe consists of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland.
Norway and Sweden are located on the Scandinavian Peninsula.
Denmark is on the Jutland Peninsula, considered part of Scandinavia culturally.
Finland is in the eastern part of the region.
Iceland is an island country in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Norway and Sweden: Mostly mountainous, with lowlands in southern Sweden sloping to the Baltic Sea. Thousands of lakes and deep fjords are present.
Svalbard: An archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, part of Norway, with glaciers and snowfields covering more than 50% of the land.
Glaciers cut fjords and valleys.
Folding and faulting from continental drift and plate tectonics shaped the landscape.
Norway’s strongest earthquake occurred here, measuring 6.5 on the Richter scale on March 6, 2009.
Finland: Mostly flat with hills and mountains; over 10% covered by inland waters.
The coastline is rugged with bays, inlets, and thousands of islands.
Iceland: An island country in the North Atlantic located on a geological hot spot along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Geologically active with about 200 volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
Straddles the boundary between the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates.
Abundant geothermal energy and hydropower provide sustainable and inexpensive energy.
Features include mountains, hot springs, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, glaciers, and geysers.
Glaciers cover roughly 11% of the island; Vatnajökull is the largest glacier in Europe.
The word "geyser" is derived from Geysir in Iceland.
Jutland Peninsula (Denmark): Glaciers deposited sand and gravel on the western side and carved fjords on the east coast.
Flat plains dominate the interior.
The Kingdom of Denmark includes the Faeroe Islands and Greenland.
Greenland is the world’s largest island at 2.1 million sq. km.
The Faeroe Islands are volcanic with high, rugged cliffs.
Water Systems
Glacial Impact: Continental glaciers created a landscape dotted with hundreds of thousands of lakes by scouring the land.
Debris left behind blocked rivers and trapped water.
Iceland: Geologically young landscape with waterfalls, small lakes, and swift rivers filled by glacier meltwater and rainfall.
Rivers contain glacial debris, making the water cloudy.
The longest river is Thjórsá, extending for 230 km.
Scandinavian Peninsula: Many rivers are short and do not provide easy connections between cities.
Norway's chief rivers stem from the mountains of Norrland and flow southeast into the Gulf of Bothnia or Baltic Sea.
The longest river in Norway is the Klar-Göta which flows 719 km until it reaches Lake Vänern.
The Glåma River drains an area of 42,051 sq. km, running almost the entire length of Norway.
Finland: The Kemi River is harnessed for hydroelectric power, flowing 483 km to the Gulf of Bothnia.
The Muonio and Torne Rivers flow along the border of Finland and Sweden.
Sweden: Has many small hydroelectric power plants harnessing river power.
Climate, Biomes, and Resources
Climate Influences: Latitude, mountain barriers, wind patterns, and proximity to large bodies of water influence climate patterns.
Climate regions include marine west coast, humid continental, subarctic, and tundra.
Location influences vegetation patterns, varying from forests and grasslands to tundra plants.
The Gulf Stream creates a mild climate in Iceland despite its high latitude.
Climate Regions and Biomes
Arctic Tundra: Found in the extreme northern parts of Scandinavia and Iceland.
Limited vegetation due to dry conditions, poor soil, cold temperatures, and frozen ground.
Tundra plants adapt to short, cold growing seasons.
Frozen ground prevents deep-rooted plants like trees.
Animals migrate to lower elevations in winter.
Subarctic Climate: Covers most of the northern half of Scandinavia.
Long, very cold winters and short, cold to mild summers.
Vegetation is limited to cold-tolerant species.
Marine West Coast Climate: Found along the Atlantic coast and in southern Sweden with milder winters.
Supports vast coniferous forests.
Humid Continental Climate: Found in the rest of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland with cold, wet winters.
Temperatures are warmer than other regions of similar latitudes due to the Baltic Sea, inland waters, and the Gulf Stream.
Natural Resources
Finland: Peat deposits cover nearly one-third of the country.
Peat is used as fuel after being dried.
Hydroelectric power and geothermal energy are significant renewable resources.
Modest amounts of iron ore, nickel, zinc, cobalt, copper, and chromium are present, but trees are the most important resource.
Finland exported over 10% of the paper and paperboard traded on the global market in 2012.
Sweden: Deposits of iron ore near Kiruna.
Other natural resources include gold, copper, lead, and zinc.
Forest products are a major revenue source.
Sweden exported 10% of the world’s sawnwood in 2010.
Hydroelectric power is a renewable resource.
Norway: A leading producer of hydroelectric power.
Used for aluminum production (importing bauxite).
Magnesium is an important natural resource.
Europe’s largest oil producer and world’s second-largest natural gas exporter.
Exported 2.184 million barrels of oil per day in 2009.
Denmark: Also has oil and natural gas, but renewable wind energy is its most important energy source.
Ranks number one in the world for electricity generated from renewable sources.
Iceland: Vast energy resources.
Only a small fraction of hydroelectric power has been tapped.
Geothermal energy heats Reykjavík and other communities, provides steam for industrial energy, and is used in commercial vegetable farming.
Human Geography of Northern Europe: History and Government
Influences: History shaped by migrations, invasions, and trade.
Nordic Countries: Similar societal structures and cultural traits differentiate them from mainland Europe.
Territories expanded, and Viking kingdoms emerged as Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.
Rise of Northern Europe: Norway’s coasts, mountains, and fjords formed natural boundaries, leading to independent communities.
By A.D. 800, about 30 small kingdoms existed in Norway.
The sea facilitated communication between the Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world.
Norsemen built ships for raiding expeditions into western and eastern Europe.
Old Norse became the basis for present-day Nordic languages.
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland shared similar cultures, languages, and religions.
A Christian mission was established in Denmark in the 800s, but conversion progressed slowly.
From the 1100s, Finland became economically integrated with Sweden.
In the 1300s, Denmark, Norway (with Iceland), and Sweden (with Finland) were united under the Kalmar Union, dominated by Denmark.
Increased trade connected the countries to mainland Europe.
In 1523, Sweden became a separate kingdom.
Denmark dominated Norway until 1814 when it ceded Norway to Sweden.
Iceland, Greenland, and the Faeroe Islands remained under Danish control.
Industrialization, Democracy, and Independence: The nineteenth century brought changes to Europe and the Nordic region.
Industrialization required a larger population and created new social classes.
New ideas brought democracy and independence.
Post-World War II: Nordic countries developed democracies.
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Iceland are governed by democratically elected parliaments.
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark are constitutional monarchies.
All Nordic countries have large, tax-funded public welfare sectors and extensive social-democratic legislation.
Programs support health care, education, and retirement income.
Population Patterns in Northern Europe
Influences: Shaped by migration and distinct ethnic groups.
Sweden: Home to Finnish-speaking indigenous inhabitants and the Sami (native people of northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland).
The Sami are descendants of nomadic peoples.
About 80% of residents live in and around Stockholm.
Since the 1970s, many people have migrated from other regions of Europe and war-torn regions of Africa (especially Somalia), seeking political asylum.
Norway: Not an EU member but has attracted international workers to petroleum exploration and processing.
Allows guest workers and students to enter.
Most immigrants come from other European countries (Poland, Germany, Sweden, and Lithuania).
Most Norwegians reside in Oslo and along the southern coast.
Denmark: Includes continental areas and the self-governing Faeroe Islands and Greenland.
Allows guest workers and international students.
Low birthrate among Danish women has resulted in slowing population growth.
Aging trends show more people over 60 than under 15.
Finland: Became independent in 1917.
Has a reputation as a proponent of humanitarian causes.
The second-largest ethnic group, the Sami, resides in the Sami Homeland.
Swedish-speaking ethnic communities live along the southwestern Baltic coast.
Approximately 80% of Finland’s population lives in urban areas.
Major cities are in the southern part near coastal harbors; Helsinki is the largest city and the capital.
In the twenty-first century, relaxed immigration policies and improved economic conditions have reversed migration trends.
Immigrants are arriving from Somalia, Russia, Sweden, and Estonia.
Iceland: Population grew from about 50,000 in the early 1700s to about 315,000 in 2013.
One of the world’s most ethnically homogenous populations.
Reykjavík is the country’s capital and largest city.
The population lives near coastlines, relying on the sea for fishing and surrounding farmland.
Overall: Northern European countries have lower population densities than most other countries in Europe due to the climate and terrain.
Populations concentrate near the sea, where fishing and shipping industries are prominent.
Metropolitan areas, such as Stockholm, are economic centers.
Copenhagen, Denmark, is an entrepôt, a port where goods are received and reshipped.
Break-of-bulk practices result in dividing large shipments into smaller amounts for distribution.
Society and Culture Today in Northern Europe
Religion: Protestant religion is dominant, but countries value religious freedom.
Finland is the only Northern European country without an official religion.
High percentage of people do not practice a religion.
Education: Highly educated populations.
School is mandatory for at least 10 years, and literacy rates are nearly 100%.
All children are required to know at least one language other than their own, often including English.
Welfare States: Known as welfare states with programs for the well-being of all residents funded by governments.
Countries such as Sweden offer complete social welfare programs.
Residents pay high taxes but benefit from wide array of social services, including health care, child care, and assisted senior living.
Family and Status of Women: Changes in attitudes toward unconventional living arrangements are accepted.
Family structures include both single and married couple households.
Relatively high birthrates due to family-friendly social welfare policies (generous maternity and paternity leave, state-supported day care).
Northern Europe favors equal work opportunities for women, balancing family and employment.
Iceland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, and Denmark are front-runners in achieving equal status for women.
Political empowerment has increased, with more women in business and high-level government jobs.
Nearly as many women as men are elected to serve in parliaments.
The Arts: Well-developed appreciation of cultural achievements.
Museums, exhibits, symphony halls, and opera houses offer art, literature, music, and dance.
The Oslo Opera House in Norway is a cultural center.
Denmark has a rich literary tradition; Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy tales are known worldwide.
Danish designers are sought after for museums, furniture, and architecture.
A keen focus on landscape, architectural, and interior design is seen in all aspects of Danish culture.
Economic Activities in Northern Europe
Economic Commonalities: Small, open economies with great economic significance in foreign trade.
Rapidly evolved from agrarian-based economies into modern, industrialized economies.
The Nordic model of industrialization and social responsibility is of interest to policymakers.
Resources, Power, and Industry: Rely on a variety of energy sources.
Iceland: Most energy comes from hydroelectric power and geothermal energy.
Sweden and Norway: Rely heavily on hydroelectric power.
Finland: Relies on peat as a source of energy.
Denmark: Limited nonrenewable energy but has invested heavily in wind energy.
Commercial fishing is important to Iceland and Norway.
Iceland: Fish and fish products constitute more than 70% of exports; favorable conditions for various kinds of fish.
Norway: Rich fishing waters of the North Atlantic, deep fjords, and a long coastline provide wild and farmed Norwegian salmon.
Other major industries include forestry, manufacturing, agriculture, and service industries.
Forestry is important in Norway, Sweden, and Finland.
Denmark’s economy is based on service industries, trade, manufacturing, and agriculture.
Denmark was the first of the Northern European countries to join what became the European Union.
The Nordic Model: Refers to the economic and social models of the Northern European countries.
This particular brand of mixed economy features welfare policies in which governments play important roles in protecting the social and economic health of their citizens.
Emphasizes labor force participation, promotes gender equality and fiscal expansion.
Offers low barriers to trade and supports union membership, both intended to offset the risks of participation in an open economy.
Physical Geography of Northwestern Europe
Landforms: Consists of plains interrupted by mountains.
The Northern European Plain (Great European Plain) is an area of relatively flat and low-lying land stretching from southeastern England and western France to central France and across Germany.
Fertile soil and rivers drew farmers to the area.
The southern edge is especially fertile due to loess deposits.
The Alps are a high and jagged mountain range south of the Northern European Plain, shaped by glaciation.
Mont Blanc is the highest peak in the Alps, at 4,807 m.
The Central Uplands lie between the Alps and the Northern European Plain in eastern France, southern Belgium, and southern Germany.
Made up of low rounded mountains, hills, and high plateaus with scattered forests.
Rich in natural resources.
The British Isles lie northwest of the mainland, consisting of Great Britain and Ireland, and thousands of smaller islands.
Rugged coastline with rocky cliffs and deep bays.
Mountains, plateaus, and valleys make up most of northern and western Great Britain.
Low hills and rolling plains dominate in the south and in Ireland.
Water Systems of Northwestern Europe
Importance: Water plays a crucial role in lives and economies.
Most of Northwestern Europe lies within 483 km of a sea or ocean coast, making ocean transportation important.
Rivers are used for transportation, trade, and recreation.
Alps: Location of major water sources.
Eleven significant European lakes surround the Alps; most are in valleys formed during their geological uplift.
These are long, narrow, and deep lakes that provided water power for industry and routes for transportation.
The scenery makes the lake areas popular tourist attractions.
Netherlands: Approximately 25% of the country lies below sea level.
The Dutch have built dikes to hold back water since the Middle Ages.
Reclaimed lands, called polders, were drained and kept dry by windmills, now pumps run by other power sources.
Polders provide land for farming and settlement.
Rivers: Differing characteristics.
England’s Thames River allows oceangoing ships to reach London.
The Rhine River flows from the Swiss Alps through France and Germany into the Netherlands, connecting industrial cities to the port of Rotterdam.
The Seine River flows through Paris and empties into the English Channel, carrying most of France’s inland waterway traffic.
The Loire River is the longest river in France, flowing north and west into the Atlantic Ocean, but is limited for navigation due to silting and fluctuations in volume.
Canals connect the river with the Seine and Rhône river systems.
Rhône River: Begins in the Swiss Alps and flows through Switzerland and France, flowing directly to the Mediterranean Sea.
Important for hydroelectric power, it is 813 km long with a drainage basin of 97,775 sq. km.
Danube River: Runs from southern Germany’s Black Forest through Austria and into Eastern Europe, emptying into the Black Sea after flowing 2,850 km.
Climate, Biomes, and Resources of Northwestern Europe
Climate Factors: Affected by the presence of the Alps and location near large bodies of water.
Winter storms from the North Atlantic Ocean also influence climate.
Climate Regions and Biomes: Generally mild climate compared with other regions at the same latitude due to the North Atlantic Current.
The North Atlantic Current is a warm ocean current that is a continuation of the Gulf Stream from the Caribbean.
This current carries warm, maritime air across the coasts and Northern European Plain.
When moist Atlantic winds reach the Alps, the rising and cooling air produces snow.
The mistral, a strong north wind from the Alps, sends cold air into southern France.
Dry winter winds called foehns blow down from mountains, triggering avalanches.
Most of the subregion has a marine west coast climate with mild winters, cool summers, and abundant rainfall.
This type of climate produces soils rich in humus.
A mild Mediterranean climate is found in Monaco, with an average annual temperature of 16°C and about 60 days a year of rain.
Natural vegetation includes deciduous trees (ash, beech, and oak) and coniferous trees (fir, pine, and spruce).
Coniferous trees are found in cooler, alpine mountain areas up to the timberline.
Wildlife includes deer, brown bears, badgers, squirrels, and songbirds.
Natural Resources: Abundant supply of coal and iron ore fueled industrial development in the 1700s.
Coal is being replaced by oil, natural gas, nuclear, and hydroelectric energy sources.
Vast oil and natural gas deposits under the North Sea contribute to Europe’s energy needs.
France has invested heavily in nuclear power due to lack of oil and gas reserves.
The Netherlands rely on natural gas, but continue to use wind power.
Switzerland and Austria get most electricity from renewable sources, such as hydroelectric plants, and have substantial timber resources.
Peat bogs of Ireland serve as a fuel source.
Germany has relatively few natural resources and imports more than half of its energy needs.
Human Geography of Northwestern Europe
History and Government: Shaped by migrations, ethnic differences, wars, and efforts at peaceful integration.
The subregion has had an enormous impact on world events, from the Industrial Revolution to the European Union.
Rise of Northwestern Europe: Most of Northwestern Europe was once part of the Roman Empire.
The Romans built towns, roads, and cities, bringing stability and prosperity.
The collapse of the Roman Empire led to invasions from Germanic groups.
Christianity became the official religion of the empire.
Armies from Northwestern Europe fought the Crusades to regain the Holy Land, opening trade routes to the eastern Mediterranean.
Europeans developed a new interest in the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, leading to the Renaissance.
The Protestant Reformation began in Germany, decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church.
Winds of Change Bring a New Era: The Enlightenment valued reason and questioned tradition, leading to belief in progress.
The French Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the French monarchy in 1792.
The Enlightenment encouraged democracy and social change.
The Industrial Revolution transformed manufacturing in Europe, starting in Great Britain with its labor, capital, technology, natural resources, and access to waterways.
Widespread industrial and social change created industrial capitalism.
Poor conditions for factory workers led to the rise of communism.
Demographic transition occurred as family size decreased.
Rivalries among the Central Powers and the Allied Powers led to World War I (1914–1918).
The Treaty of Versailles blamed Germany for the conflict.
German resentment contributed to World War II (1939–1945).
Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party carried out the Holocaust.
After World War II, the division of Europe led to the Cold War.
Germany was divided into communist East Germany and democratic West Germany and reunited in 1990.
The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.
In the 1950s, several European countries formed trade agreements, becoming the European Union (EU).
Several countries in the subregion have experienced devolution.
Population Patterns: Temperate climates, fertile soil, manufacturing, and trade have historically supported large populations.
The Netherlands and Belgium have the highest population densities, followed by the United Kingdom.
Cities have high population densities compared to rural areas.
Both internal and external migration has shaped this subregion.
After World War II, Great Britain welcomed immigrants from South Asia and the West Indies.
Germany invited guest workers to encourage economic growth.
France attracted immigrants from its former colonies Algeria and Morocco.
Aging has had a significant effect, with low birthrates and higher life expectancies leading to an older population.
Young women have delayed having children until a later age.
Internal migration is driven by poverty and movement to urban areas to find jobs.
Suburbanization occurs when people settle in places near cities.
Many cities emerged as key trading centers along navigable rivers.
Today this part of Europe is home to some of the world’s most famous cities: Paris, London, Brussels, and Amsterdam.
Society and Culture Today in Northwestern Europe
Language and Religion: Many countries have one or more official languages.
Most people speak languages of the Indo-European language family, including German and French.
Basque people speak Euskera, a language unrelated to any other.
Christianity is the primary religion, mainly Roman Catholics and members of various Protestant sects.
Most people are only nominally members of a religion.
Education: Compulsory education for children and comprehensive health care and social services are valued.
The population is 98 to 100% literate, and laws provide education through secondary school.
Europeans have been innovators in education.
Status of Women: Great strides have been made regarding equality and political empowerment for women.
Countries support equal work opportunities and promote policies to balance work and family life.
Roughly an equal number of women and men receive degrees in higher education.
Women were generally granted suffrage before women in the US and other areas.
Margaret Thatcher became the first female prime minister of Great Britain in 1979, Gro Harlem Brundtland became prime minister of Norway in 1981, and Angela Merkel became the chancellor of Germany in 2005.
The Arts: Northwestern Europe has long been a leading force in literature, architecture, music, and the visual arts.
Influential artistic movements began here.
Romanticism was embodied in the works of Lord Byron and Ludwig van Beethoven.
Realism focused on the realistic depiction of everyday life.
Impressionists moved outdoors to capture immediate experiences of the natural world.
Economic Activities of Northwestern Europe
Overview: Northwestern European economies have developed various combinations of agriculture, manufacturing, services, and technology.
Economic activities are related to natural resources, the people, and the culture.
Resources, Power, and Industry: The Industrial Revolution made Europe the birthplace of modern industry.
Development is often linked to raw materials.
Large deposits of coal and iron ore, especially in the Ruhr and Middle Rhine districts in Germany and the Lorraine-Saar district in France, sparked the growth of heavy industry.
Leading industrial centers remain in these areas.
Today, the region produces everything from computers to transportation equipment.
Service industries provide a large percentage of countries’ GDPs, with more than 70% of workers employed in service industries.
Top industries include international banking and insurance (Switzerland and the United Kingdom).
Tourism is a large service industry (Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France).
Economies are supported by high-quality transportation and communication systems.
Agriculture: Although largely industrialized, Northwestern Europe also has fertile farmland.
Agricultural crops vary with the geography of the region.
Olives, citrus fruits, and grapes grow in warm Mediterranean areas of southern France.
Farther north, farmers grow wheat, rye, and other grains as well as raise livestock.
Northern countries are major producers of dairy products.
Farmers use advanced technology to make the best use of limited agricultural space and climate differences.
Agricultural companies created agribusiness, an industry engaged in large-scale, corporate farming operations.
Many Northwestern European countries have switched from coal to natural gas, wind, and solar collections for energy production.
The subregion is a global leader in the development and use of wind energy.
The European Union has developed long-term plans that focus on biofuels, solar, wind, and other renewable energy resources to preserve the environment and decrease reliance on imported fuels.
The European Union: The movement for European unity came from the ashes of World War II.
In 1950, France proposed closer links among Europe’s coal and steel industries.
In 1957, Belgium, West Germany, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Netherlands created the European Economic Community to integrate economies.
In 1992, the Maastricht Treaty set up the European Union (EU) to make Europe’s economies competitive by removing restrictions on movement of goods, services, and people.
Paved the way for a single European currency, a central bank, and a common foreign policy.
Member countries have worked to boost trade and make economies more efficient and productive.
In 2004, members attempted to establish an EU constitution, but France and the Netherlands rejected it in 2005.
The Lisbon Treaty, signed in Lisbon, Portugal, in December 2007, retained parts of the draft constitution, including the establishment of the EU presidency and the consolidation of foreign policy representation.
Improved decision making by requiring a majority rather than unanimous approval of many decisions.
The Czech Republic was the last to ratify the treaty in November 2009.
The EU unites much of Europe into one trading community, or bloc, enjoying one of the largest volumes of trade.
The EU accounts for about one-sixth of the world’s trade in goods.
Has eliminated tariffs and other trade barriers among member nations.
Has formed favorable trade relationships with other countries, including the US and China.
Its educated and technologically advanced workforce, access to water transportation, and adaptability to changes in global trade give the EU trade advantages over other regions of the world.
Physical Geography of Southern Europe
Overview: The seaports, mountains, and rivers have played important roles.
Includes Italy, Spain, Andorra, Greece, Portugal, Vatican City, Malta, Cyprus, and San Marino.
Its geographic location has made it important for trade and agriculture for over 3,000 years.
Landforms: Dominated by peninsulas.
The Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) separates the Atlantic Ocean from the Mediterranean Sea, connected only by the Strait of Gibraltar.
Coastal plains give way to the Meseta, a large plateau.
The Pyrenees separate the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe.
Andorra owes its political autonomy to its isolated location in the Pyrenees.
The Pyrenees stretch from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea, characterized by flat-topped massifs formed by fault-line activity.
Italy occupies the Italian Peninsula, extending into the Mediterranean Sea.
Plains cover only about one-third of the Italian Peninsula; the largest is the plain of Lombardy along the Po River.
The coastline varies from high, rocky cliffs to long sandy beaches, with well-sheltered ports to support trade.
The Apennine Mountains run down the spine of the peninsula and through Sicily.
The Alps form a natural barrier between the Italian Peninsula and Northern Europe.
The Balkan Peninsula is bounded by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas to the west and the Aegean and Black Seas to the east.
Greece is the southernmost country on the Balkan Peninsula.
Mountains have limited communication and development, offset by easy access to the sea.
Greece has nearly 2,000 islands in the Aegean Sea.
Rugged Mountains form the larger islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and Cyprus.
Sicily is dominated by Mount Etna, Europe’s tallest active volcano at 3,261 m.
Water Systems: Two major rivers on the Iberian Peninsula are the Tagus and the Ebro.
The Tagus River travels 1,007 km through Portugal to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Ebro River is Spain’s longest river, fed by tributaries from the Pyrenees; it has been dammed to provide hydroelectric power and irrigation canals.
The Apennines create rivers that are steep, short, narrow, and shallow.
The Po River runs through the plain of Lombardy; its drainage basin forms Italy’s largest and most fertile agricultural plain, covering 70,091 sq. km.
Venice is located at the mouth of the Po on the Adriatic Sea.
The Tiber River is Italy’s second-longest river, the primary water source for Rome and is important to Italy's economic history.
Greece’s rivers are short, unsuitable for navigation, and unusable for irrigation, flowing in broad valleys, narrow gorges, and marshy deltas.
Northeastern Greece is home to the Maritsa River, marking Greece’s border with Turkey.
Northeastern Greece's two main rivers are the Vardar and the Aliákmon.
The glacial movement in the last ice age did not reach Southern Europe so the Region has very few lakes or reservoirs.
Climate, Biomes, and Resources of Southern Europe
Climate Influences: Southern Europe’s location on the Mediterranean Sea influences the climate and biomes.
The Alps separate the marine west coast climate to the north and the warm Mediterranean climate of Italy and the Balkans to the south.
The Alps block most Atlantic winds, causing less precipitation.
Southern Europe experiences warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.
Average yearly rainfall is less than 76 cm, mostly in winter months.
The Mediterranean climate of Southern Europe results, in part, from the warm waters of this sea.
Plants and animals are well-suited for less water and the long summer dry period.
Coastal areas are covered in chaparral.
Most agriculture takes place on coastal plains.
Ecosystems in the Mediterranean are diverse and ecologically sensitive to climate change.
Natural Resources
Italy has few mineral resources, Portugal has large deposits of copper.
Northern Spain is rich in coal, tin, and tungsten, essential in high-tech industries.
Both Italy and Spain have benefited from hydroelectricity.
Greece has many rivers suitable for producing hydroelectricity.
Human Geography of Southern Europe
Overview: The Mediterranean Sea Countries have a rich cultural heritage.
Greece was the birthplace of classical civilization, Rome was born in Italy, and Spain and Portugal led in the Age of Exploration.
Early History: Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states linked by language and culture.
The classical period of Greek history reached its height in the 400s B.C.
Athens introduced the concept of democracy.
Sparta’s generals created battle strategies still studied today.
Greek and Roman mythology has influenced Western civilization.
The Roman Republic, founded in Italy, was established on the rule of law and the balance of power.
The empire reached its height in 27 B.C.
The Path to Today: The Middle Ages followed the fall of the Roman Empire.
The Renaissance began in Italy in the 1300s, signaling a major cultural revival, facilitated by wealth and stability in Italian city-states.