Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
Goals of Psychological Enquiry
Psychological enquiry, like any scientific research, aims at five major goals: description, prediction, explanation, control of behaviour, and the application of knowledge.
Description: The goal is to describe a behaviour or phenomenon as accurately as possible to distinguish it from other behaviours.
For example, studying "study habits" involves observing a range of behaviours: attending classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning a study schedule, and revising daily.
Researchers must provide minute descriptions to help others understand the exact meaning of the category being studied.
Prediction: This involves forecasting that a particular behaviour may occur under certain conditions within a certain margin of error.
If a positive relationship is established between study time and achievement, a researcher can predict that a child who spends more time studying is likely to get good marks.
Prediction becomes more accurate as the number of persons observed increases.
Explanation: This goal is concerned with identifying the causal factors or determinants of behaviour.
Psychologists seek to understand the conditions under which a behaviour occurs or does not occur (e.g., why some children are more attentive in class than others).
Identifying "antecedent conditions" allows for the establishment of a cause-effect relationship between two variables.
Control: If the cause of a behaviour is explained, one can control it by altering its antecedent conditions.
Control refers to three specific actions: making a behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it.
Example: Psychological therapy is used to bring about deliberate changes in a person's behavior.
Application: The final goal is to bring positive changes to people's lives and solve real-world problems.
Applications like yoga and meditation are used to reduce stress and increase efficiency.
Enquiry also leads to the development of new theories and constructs for future research.
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Scientific method is defined by how it investigates, aiming to study events in an objective, systematic, and testable manner.
Objectivity: The requirement that if two or more independent researchers study the same event, they should arrive at the same conclusion.
Step 1: Conceptualising a Problem:
The researcher selects a theme or topic (e.g., study habits) and narrows focus to specific research questions based on past research, observation, and personal experience.
After identifying the problem, the researcher develops a hypothesis: a tentative answer or statement to be tested (e.g., "Greater time spent viewing TV violence leads to higher aggression").
Step 2: Collecting Data:
This requires a research design or blueprint involving four decisions:
Participants: Who will be the informants (children, teachers, clinical patients, etc.)?
Methods: Which method will be used (observation, experimental, case study, etc.)?
Tools: What specific instruments will be used (interview schedule, questionnaire, etc.)?
Procedure: How will the tools be administered (individual or group setting)?
Step 3: Drawing Conclusions:
Data is analysed using statistical procedures and graphical representations (pie charts, bar diagrams, etc.) to verify the hypothesis.
Step 4: Revising Research Conclusions:
If the data supports the hypothesis, the theory is confirmed. If not, the researcher revises the hypothesis/theory or states a new one and conducts further testing.
Alternative Paradigms of Research
The Scientific Viewpoint: Assumes human behaviour is predictable, measurable, and caused by internal or external forces. Historically, this led psychology to focus on overt (observable) behaviour for much of the 20th century.
The Interpretive viewpoint: Emphasises understanding over prediction. It argues that human experience is complex and variable, requiring a focus on the subjective meanings individuals give to events in specific contexts.
In unique contexts like suffering from a natural disaster (tsunami, earthquake) or chronic illness, objective measurement is neither possible nor desirable.
The goal is to map the "uncharted wilderness" of human experience without disturbing its natural flow.
Nature of Psychological Data
Psychological data are information related to overt/covert behaviour, subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data are not independent entities; they are context-dependent.
Demographic Information: Includes name, age, gender, birth order, siblings, education, occupation, income, and locality.
Physical Information: Includes ecological conditions (hilly/desert), mode of economy, housing, room size, and transportation.
Physiological Data: Includes height, weight, heart rate, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen, reaction time, and sleep patterns.
Psychological Information: Includes intelligence, personality, interests, values, creativity, emotions, and psychological disorders (delusions, hallucinations).
Data Forms: Can be crude categories (yes/no), ordinal ranks (1st, 2nd), scores on scales, verbal reports, or personal diaries.
Observational Method
Observation is a scientific tool that involves selection, recording, and analysis.
Selection: Psychologists select specific behaviours rather than observing everything.
Recording: Behaviours are recorded via tally marks, detailed notes, shorthand, photographs, or video.
Analysis: Deriving meaning from recorded observations.
Types of Observation:
Naturalistic vs. Controlled: Naturalistic occurs in real-life settings (schools, hospitals); Controlled occurs in laboratory settings where factors are manipulated.
Participant vs. Non-Participant: In non-participant observation, the researcher observes from a distance (e.g., via camera). In participant observation, the researcher joins the group and establishes rapport.
Experimental Method
Experiments establish cause-effect relationships by manipulating one factor and studying its effect on another while keeping others constant.
Variable: Any stimulus or event which varies (takes on different values) and can be measured.
Independent Variable (IV): The factor manipulated or altered by the researcher (the cause).
Dependent Variable (DV): The phenomenon the researcher desires to explain (the effect).
Box 2.1: Latane and Darley (1970) Study:
IV: Presence or absence of others.
DV: Frequency of reporting smoke filling the room.
Results: 75% reported smoke when alone; 38% reported in groups of three; 10% reported when with two confederates instructed to do nothing.
Experimental vs. Control Group: The experimental group is exposed to the IV; the control group is treated identically but without the IV manipulation.
Controlling Extraneous Variables:
Organismic variables: Anxiety, intelligence, etc.
Situational variables: Noise, temperature, humidity.
Sequential variables: Experimental fatigue or practice effects.
Control Techniques:
Elimination: Removing the variable (e.g., sound-proof room).
Matching: Equating groups on background variables.
Counter-balancing: Interchanging the order of tasks to minimize sequence effects.
Random Assignment: Ensuring each person has an equal chance of being in any group.
Field Experiments: Conducted in natural settings (e.g., a school) for higher generalizability.
Quasi-Experiments: Used when variables cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons (e.g., studying children who lost parents in an earthquake). The IV is "selected" rather than "manipulated."
Correlational Research
Used to determine the association between two variables for prediction.
Correlation Coefficient: A number ranging from through to .
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together (e.g., study time and achievement).
Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., study time and time spent on other activities).
Zero Correlation: No significant relationship exists (e.g., correlation coefficients like or ).
Survey Research
Initially used for social facts and attitudes, surveys now infer causal relationships.
Personal Interviews:
Structured: Uses an interview schedule with fixed wording and sequence; often uses close-ended questions.
Unstructured: Flexible wording and sequence; uses open-ended questions.
Combinations: Individual to Individual, Individual to Group (Focus Group Discussion - FGD), Group to Individual, or Group to Group.
Questionnaires: Self-report methods using a predetermined set of questions.
Close-ended: Participants choose from Yes/No, Multiple Choice, or Rating Scales (3-point to 13-point scales).
Open-ended: Participants write appropriate answers in their own words.
Box 2.2: Indian Happiness Survey (2004):
Sample: 817 persons, ages 25-55, across 8 cities.
Results: 47% reported being "extremely happy"; 80% said money cannot buy happiness; 52% cited peace of mind as the source of happiness; 36% listened to music when sad.
Psychological Testing
A standardized and objective instrument used to assess an individual’s characteristics relative to others.
Objectivity: Standardized administration, scoring, and instructions.
Reliability: Consistency of scores.
Test-retest: Temporal stability over time.
Split-half: Internal consistency (comparing odd items to even items).
Validity: Whether the test measures what it claims to measure (e.g., math achievement vs. language skill).
Norms: Average performance standards based on age, sex, or residence used for comparison.
Classification of Tests:
By Language: Verbal (requires literacy), Non-verbal (symbols), Performance (moving objects).
By Administration: Individual (face-to-face) vs. Group (large numbers at once).
By Difficulty: Speed Tests (time limit, equal difficulty) vs. Power Tests (no time limit, increasing difficulty).
Case Study and Data Analysis
Case Study: In-depth study of a particular case (individual, group, or institution). Uses multiple methods (interviews, observation, tests). Examples include Freud’s psychoanalytic insights and Piaget's cognitive development theory based on his three children.
Quantitative Method: Converts psychological attributes into numbers (e.g., scores of "1" for right and "0" for wrong). Uses statistics (mean, median, mode, standard deviation) to make inferences.
Qualitative Method: Used for complex human experiences that cannot be quantified (e.g., a mother's story of loss).
Narrative Analysis: Studying the organization of stories.
Content Analysis: Identifying thematic categories within descriptive data (field notes, transcripts).
Limitations and Ethical Issues
General Limitations:
Lack of True Zero Point: Intelligence or personality scores are relative, as there is no "zero intelligence."
Relative Nature of Tools: Tests developed for urban Western contexts may not apply to Indian tribal contexts.
Subjective Interpretation: Qualitative data depends on the interpretation of the researcher.
Ethical Principles:
Voluntary Participation: Participants must have the freedom to decide whether to participate and the right to withdraw without penalty.
Informed Consent: Participants must know what will happen during the study before it starts.
Debriefing: Post-study information session to remove anxiety and explain any deception used.
Sharing Results: Researchers have a moral duty to share findings with the participants.
Confidentiality: Safeguarding the privacy of participants, often by using code numbers instead of names.