Manifest Destiny (Tyler and Polk)
Van Buren Presidency (1837-1841)
Key Events: Panic of 1837, Divorce Bill.
Panic of 1837: This economic crisis was triggered by several of Andrew Jackson's policies, including:
Bank War: Jackson's opposition to the Second Bank of the United States, which he viewed as a monopolistic entity that favored the affluent at the expense of the common man, led to its dissolution.
Specie Circular: Implemented in 1836, this policy required all land purchases to be made in gold or silver, rather than paper money, causing a liquidity crisis. As a result, widespread bank failures occurred, and unemployment soared, plunging the country into a severe recession that impacted many citizens.
Response to Panic: To address the financial turmoil, Van Buren proposed the Divorce Bill, which created an Independent Treasury. This governmental body safely stored federal funds in government-owned institutions rather than private banks. This was meant to mitigate the risks associated with economic downturns but inadvertently restricted government investment in infrastructure and economic development.
Political Context: The economic struggles strengthened the opposition Whig Party, which emerged as a coalition of former Democrats discontented with Jacksonian policies. Led by figures such as Henry Clay, the Whigs advocated for the restoration of a national bank, internal improvements, and protective tariffs.
Election of 1840: The election between Martin Van Buren and William Henry Harrison was characterized by a divide on economic issues. Harrison's campaign effectively crafted his image as a candidate who understood and resonated with the concerns of the common people. His slogan, "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too," linked his military heroism with an appeal to everyday citizens facing economic hardships. Harrison won decisively, securing 234 electoral votes to Van Buren's 60, illustrating a significant public discontent with the current state of the economy and governance.
William Henry Harrison Presidency (1841)
Notable Fact: Harrison's presidency was cut tragically short; he fell ill with pneumonia and passed away just 31 days after his inauguration, making him the first sitting president to die in office. This abrupt end raised questions about succession and the power of the presidency.
Impact: Harrison’s short tenure underscored the vulnerabilities within presidential succession, leading to an eventual re-examination of the presidential line of succession.
Election Campaign: Despite his relatable campaign style focusing on his military background and common man image, his brief presidency failed to produce any significant legislative achievements or policy advancements.
John Tyler Presidency (1841-1845)
Profile: Tyler, who had been a Democrat, faced challenges in the Whig-dominated government due to his opposition to many Whig policies, leading to considerable friction in his administration.
Veto Power: Tyler earned the nickname “Mr. Veto” after he vetoed multiple key measures proposed by Henry Clay, including attempts to create a new national bank. His use of veto power alienated him from the Whig party, eventually leading to the resignation of his entire cabinet, save for Secretary of State Daniel Webster.
Impeachment Attempts: Tyler faced constant threats of impeachment from Whig members, reflecting the deep political fractures between him and the party. High-profile disagreements and Tyler’s failure to align with Whig priorities intensified his isolation and led to the passage of legislative measures without presidential support.
US-British Relations
Background: After the American Revolution, U.S.-British relations were marked by distrust and conflicts, notably escalating during the War of 1812, which focused on maritime rights and territorial expansion.
Caroline Incident: Tensions rose sharply during the Caroline Incident (1837), where British troops attacked the American ship Caroline, which was supplying Canadian rebels. This created an international diplomatic crisis and increased calls for military preparedness in the United States.
Aroostook Valley War: Existing border tensions led to this non-violent dispute between Maine and Canadian territories. It ended with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842, negotiated by Secretary of State Daniel Webster. This treaty resolved the Aroostook Valley conflict, set clear borders, and improved bilateral relations.
Texas and Annexation
Background: Texas, having secured independence from Mexico in 1836, was a self-governing republic faced with instability from ongoing threats of Mexican invasion and internal calls for the expansion of slavery.
Pressure for Annexation: The growing desire among Texans and Americans for annexation was fueled by fears of retaliatory action from Mexico and the desire to expand slave-holding territories.
Presidential Action: Tyler, a lame-duck president after losing Whig support, proposed Texas annexation through a joint resolution of Congress rather than a treaty, which would require a two-thirds majority Senate vote. He sought to finalize Texas' entry as the 28th state to alleviate security fears. His actions ignited significant political debate and ultimately set the stage for future conflict over slavery in the new territories.
James K. Polk Election (1844)
Candidates: The Democratic candidate, James K. Polk, faced Whig candidate Henry Clay in a pivotal election set against the backdrop of expansionist sentiment.
Polk's Platform: Polk ran on a highly expansionist platform rooted in the ideology of Manifest Destiny, advocating for U.S. territorial expansion across North America. His campaign slogan, "Fifty-four forty or fight!" reflected the strong sentiment for acquiring Oregon territory up to the latitude line of 54°40′.
Polk Wins: Polk succeeded in defeating Clay by seizing on the latter's indecision on Texas, winning with 170 electoral votes to Clay’s 105, while the Liberty Party also emerged as a vocal presence opposing the extension of slavery into new territories.
James K. Polk's Goals and Achievements
Four-Point Plan: Polk initiated a comprehensive agenda meant to reinforce U.S. influence and control:
Resolve the contentious Oregon boundary dispute with Britain.
Lower tariff rates, effectively accomplished through the Walker Tariff, which proposed rates dropping to around 25%.
Restore the independent treasury to stabilize and safeguard the nation’s finances.
Secure California from Mexico, as part of his broader territorial ambitions.
Outcome: Remarkably, Polk achieved all these objectives within his single term, earning him recognition as one of the most effective presidents in U.S. history, particularly for his assertive approach to American expansionism.
Oregon Boundary Dispute
Resolution: The Oregon territory dispute was resolved with the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary between British and American territories, effectively avoiding war while accommodating both American settler desires and British trade interests.
Historical Importance: This treaty secured U.S. control over the resource-rich territory, allowing for the continued influx of settlers and contributing to the growing notion of Manifest Destiny that characterized the following decades of American expansion.
Manifest Destiny
Definition: Manifest Destiny was the 19th-century doctrine suggesting that the expansion of the U.S. across the American continents was both justified and inevitable, with a perceived divine obligation to spread democracy and civilization.
Origin: Coined by journalist John L. Sullivan, the term gained traction during Polk's presidency as a legitimate rationale for territorial expansion, including wars and occupation of lands that were inhabited by Native Americans and Mexicans. It became a key ideological force influencing American foreign policy and domestic politics.