SUMMARY || USGOV: Our Democracy - Chapter 23, Lesson 3-4

LESSON 3: Foreign Policy Powers

Foreign Policy Powers

The President of the United States, as granted by the Constitution, serves as the commander in chief of the military. This empowers them to deploy troops, ships, and aircraft without prior congressional approval; however, the formal declaration of war remains the sole authority of Congress, ensuring a system of checks and balances in military engagements.

Presidential Powers

• Diplomatic Powers: The President has substantial diplomatic powers, including the authority to appoint ambassadors—government officials who represent the United States to other nations—and to receive foreign ambassadors, signifying formal recognition of those governments.

• Treaties: The President is responsible for negotiating and making treaties; however, these treaties require ratification by a two-thirds majority in the Senate to become legally binding.

Key Advisers in Foreign Policy

• Secretary of State: Typically viewed as the primary foreign affairs adviser, overseeing all diplomatic initiatives and representing the U.S. at international conferences.

• Secretary of Defense: Advises on military capabilities and strategies.

• National Security Advisor: Chairs the National Security Council (NSC) and plays a pivotal role in coordinating information and policy concerning national security.

Intelligence and Decision-Making

Access to intelligence is crucial for informed decision-making in foreign policy. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), established in 1947, gathers and analyzes intelligence related to global events. It works alongside the intelligence community, which includes 17 agencies, such as the National Security Agency (NSA), focusing on electronic surveillance and code breaking.

Congressional Powers

While the President directs U.S. foreign policy, Congress maintains significant powers that act as a counterbalancing force:

• Declare War & Approve Military Funding: Congress holds the authority to declare war, approve military funding, and ratify treaties, ensuring legislative involvement in matters of war and peace.

• Influence Foreign Aid: Congress can influence foreign aid, determining the allocation of funds for international initiatives and setting conditions for those funds.

Public Opinion and Historical Context

Public opinion and interest groups play influential roles in foreign policy. Congressional members can amplify public sentiment, possibly swaying the President's decisions on military actions or foreign engagements. Examples include the Vietnam War, where mass protests led to significant policy shifts, and the 2013 conflicts in Syria, where President Obama faced pressure regarding military intervention after chemical weapon use by the Assad regime. This case illustrates the impact of public and legislative opinion on executive decisions regarding foreign affairs.

LESSON 4: State and Defense Departments

The Department of State

The Department of State (State Department) is a critical component of the U.S. government, advising the president on the formulation and implementation of foreign policy. It serves the essential functions of maintaining diplomatic relations with other nations, negotiating treaties, and ensuring the safety and well-being of Americans traveling or doing business abroad.

The department is organized into geographic bureaus, which focus on specific regions (e.g., African Affairs, East Asian and Pacific Affairs), and topical bureaus that handle issues such as Economic and Business Affairs or Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. This structure allows for specialized expertise in various areas of international relations.

The State Department also oversees the U.S. Mission to the United Nations, playing a pivotal role in multilateral diplomacy.

Over half of the department's employees are Foreign Service officers (FSOs), who are often posted in embassies and consulates around the world. These officers work on advancing U.S. interests by facilitating communication and fostering democratic institutions, supporting free elections, enhancing education and healthcare, advocating for human rights, and providing disaster relief. The pathway to becoming an FSO involves rigorous educational requirements, a demanding civil service exam, and specialized training.

U.S. embassies, located in the capitals of foreign nations, serve as the official residency and office for ambassadors and their teams, thereby promoting effective diplomatic communication. Conversely, consulates, situated in major cities, primarily promote American business interests and provide assistance to American citizens; they address inquiries related to travel, shipping, and local business opportunities.

Additionally, the State Department is responsible for issuing passports, which serve as identification and protect the rights of American citizens abroad, and managing visa requirements for foreigners wishing to enter the United States.

The Department of Defense

The Department of Defense (DOD) is crucial for national security, supervising the armed forces to safeguard American interests domestically and internationally. The DOD plays an integral role in shaping foreign policy, with particular emphasis on the use of military force, coordination of foreign assistance, and the provision of intelligence.

The DOD comprises three primary branches: the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force, with each branch headed by a civilian secretary. Within the DOD, the United States Marine Corps operates under the Navy, maintaining its own identity and leadership. Civilian oversight of the military ensures that it remains under democratic control, with the president acting as commander-in-chief and Congress exerting fiscal authority through budgetary approvals. This structure reinforces the principle of civilian control, vital for the health of the Republic.

The DOD has historically had the greatest influence on foreign policy during situations that warrant military intervention. The president has the authority to deploy military forces to achieve foreign policy objectives. For instance, in 1989, President George H.W. Bush ordered U.S. troops into Panama to oust the dictator Manuel Noriega and help restore democracy. In recent years, the military has adapted significantly, incorporating unconventional forces such as Navy SEAL teams and drone technology to execute complex missions.

Foreign assistance programs managed by the DOD provide crucial humanitarian support, enabling rapid deployment of military resources to aid in disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes. Additionally, Congress has mandated new health initiatives which include HIV prevention training for foreign military personnel, further intertwining military efforts with global health concerns.

The DOD is also responsible for gathering and analyzing intelligence, a function dominated by agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA). This intelligence is pivotal in influencing Congressional and presidential decision-making regarding foreign relations and security matters.

From a staffing perspective, the DOD shifted to an all-volunteer armed force following the suspension of the draft in 1973; however, the potential for reinstating conscription remains viable due to the existing law surrounding the Selective Service System. All males between the ages of 18 and 25 are required to register, ensuring a pool of potential recruits should the need arise. Women are allowed to serve in all branches of the military, including combat roles, thereby reflecting ongoing efforts to diversify the military workforce and enhance operational capability.