Ch. 7 Prejudice

7.1 The Foundations of Prejudice

Learning Objectives

  • 7.1.1: Describe the causes and consequences of in-group bias.

  • 7.1.2: Summarize the four steps to flexible ethnocentrism.

  • 7.1.3: Discuss the psychological contributors and consequences of stereotyping.

  • 7.1.4: Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of group formation.

Overview of Prejudice

  • Prejudice stems from various biological and social factors.

  • Research focuses on individual, group, and societal levels to mitigate prejudice’s negative impacts on health and well-being.

  • Discussion divides into two parts:

    1. Foundations of Prejudice: Inevitable contributing factors.

    2. Social Factors: Social structures resting on these foundations.

  • Analogy: Prejudice is like a camera on a tripod (three foundational supports) with varying social implications as perspectives shift based on lenses used.

7.1.1 The First Leg: Group Formation

In-group Bias

  • Humans naturally form groups, a behavior rooted in survival instincts.

  • Group memberships enhance identity, leading to a protective bias regarding one's group.

  • This self-enhancement parallels biases observed in personal identity, setting the stage for prejudice.

Social Identity Theory

  • Definition: Our self-concept involving connections to various social groups.

  • Group affiliations enhance self-esteem via favoring one's own group (in-group bias).

  • Example: Henri Tajfel’s 1971 Study (overestimators and underestimators) demonstrated how group identity influences resource allocation favorably towards one's group despite arbitrary classification.

    • Participants were biased towards their group, assigning more points to in-group members, showcasing a pattern of in-group bias.

  • Neurological Basis of In-group Bias:

    • Studies show that empathy towards in-group members varies neurologically and is associated with oxytocin levels.

    • Out-group bias: This reflects negative predispositions towards those outside one’s group, influencing social norms and perceptions of behaviors in other cultures.

Identity Fusion

  • Identity Fusion: An extreme form of social identity where individual identity merges with group identity, promoting protective behaviors for the group.

  • Example: Psychologist Bill Swan explored how extreme behaviors (e.g., terrorism) relate to fused identities.

Reducing In-group Bias

  • More complex social identities can counteract in-group bias.

  • Advocacy for multiculturalism fosters appreciation of diversity and reduces bias.

7.1.2 The Second Leg: Ethnocentrism

Understanding Ethnocentrism

  • Definition: Judging other cultures through one's own cultural lens.

  • Outcomes:

    • Inflexible Ethnocentrism: Leads to bias and judgments against different cultures.

    • Flexible Ethnocentrism: Involves a non-judgmental approach, fostering better intercultural relations.

Steps to Achieve Flexible Ethnocentrism

  1. Cultural Awareness: Recognize one’s own cultural rules and biases.

  2. Understand Other Cultures: Acknowledge that other cultures operate under their own valid norms.

  3. Cultural Education: Learning about the beliefs and behaviors of other cultures contextualizes understanding and reduces bias.

  4. Mindfulness: Apply new knowledge to build empathy and understanding for other cultures, avoiding initial stereotype-based rejections.

7.1.3 The Third Leg: Stereotypes

Psychological Contributors to Stereotyping

  • Definition: Generalizations about a group, which may be positive or negative.

  • Cognitive Efficiency: Stereotypes act as cognitive shortcuts amid overwhelming information, often leading to inaccuracies.

Stereotype Mechanisms

  • Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: The tendency to see outgroup members as more similar than in-group members.

  • Confirmation Bias: The inclination to remember instances that support stereotypes while dismissing counter-evidence.

  • Observational Learning: Stereotypes may be learned behavior from social surroundings.

Consequences of Stereotyping

  • Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Stereotypes can influence individuals’ behaviors and reinforce biased expectations.

  • Stereotype Threat: Anxiety stemming from being at risk of confirming a stereotype, which can hinder performance.

    • Example: Claude Steele’s study on academic performance differences among Black and White students based on stereotype activation.

7.1.4 Analyzing Group Formation Implications

Advantages of Group Formation

  • Facilitates survival through cooperative behavior and resource pooling (adaptive advantage).

  • Promotes well-being by fostering social support and sense of belonging.

Disadvantages of Group Formation

  • Can foster in-group bias, leading to prejudice against out-groups, causing division and conflict.

  • Ethnocentrism may stifle understanding and acceptance of diverse cultural practices.

  • Stereotypes can form barriers, solidifying social inequities and discrimination.

7.2 Prejudice and Discrimination

Learning Objectives

  • 7.2.1: Determine trends in prejudice.

  • 7.2.2: Summarize the causes of prejudice.

  • 7.2.3: Determine the impact of prejudice and discrimination on relations.

  • 7.2.4: Summarize strategies to combat personal prejudice.

Conceptualizing Prejudice

  • Definition: A prejudgment, typically negative, toward a particular group of people without full consideration of individuals within that group.

  • Discrimination: Unequal treatment based on prejudice; behavior that reflects prejudicial attitudes.

7.2.1 Trends in Prejudice

  • Universality: Exists across cultures, evolving with society.

  • Examples include historical biases against various ethnicities and genders.

  • Modern prejudice often manifests subtly, often referred to as "going underground."

Current Examples and Statistics

  • Gender biases in education and workplace settings, documented by unequal evaluations and pay discrepancies.

7.2.2 Causes of Prejudice

Key Psychological Theories

  1. Realistic Group Conflict Theory: Prejudice emerges from competition over scarce resources.

  2. Social Learning Theory: Prejudice learned from social interactions and media influences.

  3. Relative Deprivation: Feelings of inferiority when comparing one's group to better-off groups leading to scapegoating and prejudice.

7.2.3 Effects of Prejudice

Relationship to Self-Esteem and Health

  • Negative impacts on individuals targeted by prejudice, affecting psychological health, self-esteem, and physical health outcomes.

  • Example: Chronic stress leads to health issues such as diabetes and heart disease in marginalized communities.

Stereotype Threats and Their Implications

  • Sustained negative stereotypes trigger performance anxiety, which can create barriers to success in various fields.

7.2.4 Overcoming Prejudice

Effective Strategies

  1. Superordinate Goals: Collaboration on shared objectives that require intergroup cooperation, evidenced in the Robbers Cave Experiment.

  2. Jigsaw Classroom Model: Students work in diverse groups relying on each other to learn, promoting cooperation and reducing bias.

  3. Intergroup Contact: Exposure to diverse groups in equal status settings promotes understanding and decreases prejudice.

  4. Mindfulness Practices: Enable individuals to confront their biases consciously, promoting greater awareness and reducing negative stereotypes.

Summary

  • Understanding the complexities of prejudice—its foundations, causes, and various effects—provides insight into methods for reducing prejudice.

  • Emphasizing social identity, ethnocentrism, and stereotyping helps unravel the roots of prejudice and informs strategies for overcoming bias in diverse settings.