Foreign affairs and isolationism

The period between 1865 to 1890 was a period of political, social and economic change.

Ideology and its impact

• Ideology played an important role in shaping America and Americans in the years between 1865 and 1890.

Manifest Destiny

• The term Manifest Destiny was coined in 1845 by newspaper editor John O’Sullivan to describe the ideology of American continental expansion from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean

• The idea of Manifest Destiny gained widespread support in the 1840s due to the Mexican-American war, in which the US annexed territory previously belonging to Mexico.

• As a result of the war Texas, territory in most of California, as well as in Utah, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico now belonged to the United States

American Exceptionalism

• American exceptionalism, like Manifest Destiny, this was used as an ideological justification for American expansionism in the 19th century and involvement in foreign affairs in the 20th century.

• The idea links back to the American Revolution in 1877 when the United States gained its independence from Britain, broke free from imperial control and established its own constitution.

• At its core is a belief that America is unique in its advocation of freedom and liberty and that it therefore has a duty to spread these ideas as part of a democratic mission through territorial expansion.

• This idea heavily rested on the Manichean view of the Old World vs the New World, i.e. Europe and its history of oppression vs America as the land of liberty.

  • These ideas influenced American thinking in the 20th century and continue to influence Americans today.

American Isolationism

• American isolationism is the idea that Americans would not intervene in foreign affairs. This idea was essential with its relationship with the world since it’s conception in 1776.

• American colonists did not want any continued involvement with European governments who had denied them religious and economic freedom. This anti-colonial mindset influenced Americans for decades.

• America was separated from Europe by the Atlantic Ocean, which placed the U.S. and the American continents in a unique position, different to the Old World geographically and ideologically.

• Land of the Free was the notion that America was a haven for those seeking protection from persecution in Europe.

• The Monroe Doctrine was the cornerstone of American diplomacy in the 19th century and beyond and established the nature of America’s engagement in foreign affairs for generations to come.

• This doctrine stated there were inherent differences between the New World (USA) and the Old World (Europe).

• The US would not interfere in European political affairs or with existing European colonies in the Western hemisphere. In return, Europe should not try to colonise or assert influence on the American continents.

• Any attempt by European powers to do so would be seen as a threat to the security of the USA and would be considered an act of war.

• The commitment to non-intervention set out in the Monroe Doctrine was an important aspect of isolationism.

France, Austria and Mexico

• In 1863, with the US preoccupied with Civil War, Napoleon III of France sent an army to Mexico City. He wanted to establish a regime favourable to French interests.

• The United States had supported the Liberal government of Benito Juarez in Mexico against Mexican Conservatives, however, this government had suspended debt repayments to Europe which led to tripartite intervention from France, Britain and Spain

• Britain and Spain withdrew when it became clear that the French sought to establish an empire in Mexico.

• Napoleon installed Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg, brother of the Emperor of Austria, as Emperor of Mexico in 1864. He gained the support of Mexican Conservatives against the Liberals led by Juarez.

• There was little that America could do militarily as it was embroiled in Civil War, and Secretary of State, William Seaward had to rely on diplomatic pressure.

  • It was also important not to antagonise Napoleon III and risk his intervention on the side of the Confederacy

• In 1865, once the Civil War had ended, many US army generals were evoking the Monroe Doctrine and wanted the army to be sent to Mexico to fight against a foreign invasion in America’s sphere of influence.

• By 1867, it had become apparent that American intervention was unnecessary. Archduke Maximilian lost support from the people because Mexican Nationalists, led by Juarez fought a skilful guerrilla war against him. Napoleon III lost interest in the Mexican venture.

• This gave power to the Monroe Doctrine in American foreign policy as it was seen as the expulsion of European powers from America’s sphere of influence. In reality was that it was doomed to failure from the start and unrelated with US involvement

Territorial expansion

• By 1865, territorial expansion was already happening in America.

  • Territorial expansion began in 1803 with the Louisiana purchase.

• From 1865 to 1890, the focus was on further continentalist expansion aided by wars, treaties and government policy to encourage the acquisition of new land

The Alaska Purchase

• Russia sold Alaska to America. It was purchased in 1867 for 7.2 million American dollars.

• Politicians at the time were sceptical of the purchase and dubbed it Seaward’s Folly. They essentially considered it an expensive mistake.

• This purchase gave the US access to the Pacific northern rim.

• However, this led to strong commercial links to be established with the development of West Coast ports such as Seattle and San Francisco.

  • The economic potential of Alaska also became more apparent with the discovery of gold in 1896

America’s relationship with Canada

• Treaties between the USA and Canada in 1842 and 1846 agreed on the border between the two countries.

  • However, this did not ease all tensions because it only applied to the border in the east, meaning that in the West, territorial claims could still be made.

• Before 1865, the relationship between America and Canada was strained by Canada’s sympathy towards the Confederates and the continued trade with the aforementioned.

The Fenian Roads

• From 1866 to 1871, the Fenian Brotherhood carried out a series of armed attacks from the US across the border into Canada.

• The Fenian Brotherhood were a group of Irish Nationalists who had emigrated from Ireland to the US. The group had been banned in Britain yet was allowed to operate freely in the US.

• Their aim in carrying out the raids was to seize Canadian territory to exchange with Britain for Irish independence. It was an unrealistic plan from the outset, yet the raids were taken seriously by British and Canadian officials as it exacerbated fears of American annexation, especially as initially, the US government was turning a blind eye to the raids.

• The Fenian raids were one of several factors that influenced the move towards Confederation - the unification of the three British North American colonies into one federation called the Dominion of Canada in 1867

Red River Colony

• The Red River Colony was a settlement in Canada just across the US-Canadian border near North Dakota.

• After the Confederation, this area was disputed.

  • American expansionists thought it would provide an ideal settlement area and that it would help expand their control further into North America.

British Columbia

• After the Alaska purchase in 1867, the entire Pacific Northwest opened up to American expansion.

  • Alaska was separate from the USA by the province of British Columbia

  • British Columbia was far away from the rest of the Canadian Confederation

• Expansionists, like William Seaward, were confident that British Columbia would choose to become part of the US

• British Columbia was persuaded to join with Canada after promises to build a railway to connect the province to the rest of the country, were made.

  • British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871 and the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed in 1886.

• By 1890, the West had been conquered and settled and was recognised as United States territory.

American-Indian Wars

• What enabled the Americans to expand their territory in the North America was the confiscation of Native American land and, alongside it, the destruction of the Native American way of life, so much that some scholars refer to it as genocide.

• However, at the time, the government’s policy was seen as progress and settling the empty West and civilising what they saw as racially and culturally inferior Native Americans was a part of this.

  • These ideas are now referred to as the National Myth.

• The American Indian Wars refer to the series of conflicts between the American government and various Native American tribes eventually enabled the American government to continue to move the frontier westwards

• From the 1830s to the 1850s, the American government had been removing Native Americans from their ancestral lands in the east to make way for white settlers.