Endocrine And Endocrine Pathologies

List the hormones made and released by the anterior pituitary gland, their abbreviations, and functions: 

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH: controls the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.

• Prolactin (PRL): Milk production from the breast

• Growth Hormone (Somatotropin): responsible for (insulin-like) growth and metabolism factors from the liver and many tissues

• Thyrotropin (TSH): controls the release of T3 and T4 hormones from the thyroid gland

• Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH): controls the release of androgens in male, estrogen, and progesterone in females from the endocrine cells of the gonads

• Luteinizing Hormone(LH): controls the release of androgens in male, estrogen and progesterone in female from the endocrine cells of the gonads 

  • FSH and LH are both gonadotropins 

·  List the hormones released by the posterior pituitary gland and their source (hypothalamus).

• Oxytocin: ejection of milk, and contraction of the uterus during labor and delivery

• Vasopressin (ADH): acts on the kidney to regulate water balance in the body

·  List the three hormone classes, site of synthesis, receptors location on the cell, and major examples of each. (check diagram below)

• Peptide Hormones: 

  • Site of synthesis: made in advance; stored in secretory vesicles

  • Receptors location: cell membrane

  • Example: insulin, parathyroid hormone

• Steroid Hormones: 

  • Site of synthesis: synthesized on demand from precursors

  • Receptors location: cytoplasm or nucleus, some have membrane receptors alos

  • Example: estrogens, androgens, cortisol

• Amine Hormones (Tyrosine Derivatives) there are two:

  • Catecholamines 

    • Site of synthesis: made in advance; stored in secretory vesicles

    • Receptor location: cell membrane

    • Example: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine

  • Thyroid hormones

    • Site of synthesis: made in advance; precursor stored in secretory vesicles

    • Receptor location: nucleus

    • Example: Thyroxine (T4) 

·  Cholesterol is a precursor for the synthesis of what hormones?

• aldosterone, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones (estrogens, progesterone, and androgens

• Steroid hormones: 

·  List the hormones of the adrenal medulla.

• Epinephrine

• Norepinephrine 

·  What is the description of the following conditions:

• Addison's disease:  typically results from the autoimmune destruction of the adrenal cortex. a serious condition caused by the failure of the adrenal cortex to produce essential hormones. 

• Cushing's disease:  form of hypercortisolism caused by a pituitary tumor that leads to excessive production of cortisol. This results in a range of symptoms including hyperglycemia, tissue wasting, and characteristic fat distribution.

• Graves' disease: results from the immune system producing antibodies that mimic TSH, leading to excessive thyroid hormone production. This causes symptoms of hyperthyroidism and is classified as a primary disorder due to its origin in the thyroid gland.

•  Paget's disease: involves abnormal bone remodeling, leading to enlarged and misshapen bones. It contrasts with osteoporosis, which is characterized by bone loss.

• Acromegaly: a condition resulting from excessive growth hormone (GH) secretion in adults, leading to changes in the jaw, facial features, and extremities.

• adrenogenital syndrome: results from enzyme defects in adrenal steroid production, leading to excess androgen secretion. In newborn girls, this causes masculinization of the external genitalia. 

•  Cretinism:  results from untreated hypothyroidism in infancy, leading to decreased mental capacity and stunted growth. 

•  Dwarfism: caused by a severe deficiency of growth hormone during childhood, leading to short stature and proportional growth. Growth hormone is vital for normal growth and development, working in conjunction with insulin-like growth factors to ensure proper bone and tissue development

• Exophthalmos: primarily caused by Graves' disease, where antibodies stimulate the thyroid gland excessively, leading to hyperthyroidism and a characteristic protrusion of the eyes. This condition results from immune-mediated changes in the eye socket's muscles and tissues. 

Sensory System

·  To where do all sensory pathways first travel and what is the exception?

• All sensory pathways first travel to the thalamus with the

•  exception of olfaction (the only sensory pathway that bypasses the thalamus and directly projects to the olfactory bulb in the brain)

·  Define the two-point discrimination test: it assesses the ability to distinguish two separate points on the skin. It measures the smallest distance at which two points of contact can be felt as separate. This test helps determine the density of touch receptors in a specific area of the skin. Areas with a higher density of receptors can distinguish two points at a smaller distance.

·  Define Phasic receptors: rapidly adapting receptors that fire when they first receive a stimulus but cease firing if the strength of the stimulus remains constant.

·  Define Nociceptors:  neurons with free nerve endings that respond to strong noxious stimuli (chemical, mechanical, or thermal) that can cause tissue damage.

·  Define referred pain: is a sensory experience in which pain is perceived as arising in one area of the body when in fact another, often quite remote area, is receiving the painful stimulus. Thus the pain is said to be “referred” to a different area. 

·  Define Chronic pain: pain that persists for a long time, often much greater than what would be expected from nociceptor activation alone. It reflects damage to or long-term changes in the nervous system.

·  What is Umami and how many primary taste (gustation) sensations do we have.

• Five Basic Taste Sensations: Sweet, Sour (acid), Salty, Bitter, Umami

• Umami: is a taste associated with the amino acid glutamate and some nucleotides.
  

·  What are the boney structures in the middle ear, what is their function, and what do they connect?

• Bony Structures: Malleus (Hammer), Incus (Anvil), Stapes (Stirrup)

• Functions: These three small bones, also known as the ossicles, conduct sound from the external environment to the inner ear. They amplify and transmit sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the inner ear.

• Connections: Malleus: One end is attached to the tympanic membrane. Incus: Connects the malleus to the stapes. Stapes: The stirrup end is attached to a thin membrane called the oval window, which separates the middle ear from the inner ear.

·  List the structures involved in the visual pathway starting from the eye to the visual cortex of the brain.

• Retina > optic nerves > optic chiasm > optic tracts > lateral geniculate bodies (thalamus) > optic radiations >  visual cortex (occipital lobe)