Notes on Western Civilization: Foundations and Early Civilizations
What defines western civilization? (overview and framing)
Western civilization is a broad, foundational mindset shaping Europe and much of global culture, politics, religion, and morality.
Key themes shaped by western civilization:- Government and political theory
Primary religious structures and moral codes
Attitudes toward other groups and cultural norms
There is no single succinct definition; the course will gradually flesh out how this mindset developed over time.
Focus of the course: understanding civilization as a process and identifying the characteristics that define civilizations historically.
Core terminology and time designations
Historic vs. Prehistoric:- Historic: history based on written records.
Prehistoric (often called preliterate): before writing existed; interpreted via artifacts and archaeological evidence.
Artifacts: remains or objects from past societies that tell stories without written records (e.g., stone tablets, bones, tools, pottery).
Writing and large-scale literacy:- Writing emerged as a pivotal development; literacy was typically limited to a small, wealthy, trained group (e.g., scribes, scribal classes).
Time designations and calendar structure:- BCE = Before the Common Era
CE = Common Era
There is no year 0; time moves from 1 BCE to 1 CE.
Examples you’ll hear in class: 5{,}000 ext{ BCE},
4{,}500 ext{ BCE},
4{,}000 ext{ BCE}; transitioning to CE years like 3 ext{ CE},
33 ext{ CE},
2025 ext{ CE}.
Why time designations exist:- To give structure to history and organize study and textbooks; not a perfect reflection of events, especially in prehistoric periods.
History as perception and evidence:- The more written accounts and firsthand sources available, the more confident we can be about what happened.
In earlier (pre-writing) periods, interpretations rely on archaeological evidence and plausibility; later periods benefit from more abundant records (e.g., video, multiple accounts).
Prehistory: from Paleolithic to Neolithic
Paleolithic (Stone Age):- Nomadic hunter-gatherers; subsisted on available food sources; highly mobile.
Social structure and daily life reflected in cave art (e.g., animals depicted in prehistoric cave drawings).
Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age):- Transition to agriculture and domestication of animals; irrigation networks and specialized labor emerged.
The move toward settled communities and centralized resources marks a key shift in civilization-building.
Oldest Neolithic site mentioned: Patel Hayyuk (spelling as in transcript; located in modern-day Turkey).
Early indicators of civilization in the prehistoric era:- Emergence of settled towns, architectural planning, and early urbanization signals (e.g., the lack of traditional roads in some early settlements and the possibility of roof-based connectivity).
Use of walls around settlements as protection; defensive and protective structures were common.
Important transitions in material culture:- Bronze tools and weapons eventually become central to warfare and tooling; this marks the Bronze Age transition.
The Bronze Age paves the way for more complex social and political structures; later iron would change warfare entirely.
How archaeologists interpret prehistory:- They weave plausible narratives from artifacts (evidence-based storytelling).
The interpretation can change with new discoveries.
What is civilization? A checklist approach
Civilization indicators (a check-list used to identify civilizations):- Urban areas
Religious structure
Organized political structure
Social hierarchy based on economic power (ruler, nobles, commoners, slaves)
Development of writing
Artistic and intellectual activity
Rise of material culture and trade
These features apply to ancient Mesopotamian civilizations as well as later societies and help identify civilizations in the archaeological record.
Explanation of social dynamics:- Resource competition drives conflict and state formation.
Complex governance, markets, and social stratification emerge to manage resources and power.
Analogy from popular culture to illustrate universal patterns:- The Survivor TV show example: in any group, some individuals systematically adapt, form alliances, and outlast others due to social strategies rather than sheer brute force.
The importance of shared human behaviors:- Across civilizations, humans tend to organize around governance, religion, language, writing, trade, and cultural norms—despite vast geographic and cultural differences.
Culture and anthropology: studying ways of life
Culture is a way of life invented by a group and transmitted through teaching.
Culture develops in proximity and over time as people interact and exchange ideas, tools, and practices.
Anthropologists study cultures: the scientific study of modern human cultures and societies, focusing on why people do what they do, not just artifacts.
Cross-cultural empathy and critical thinking:- It’s essential to approach other cultures without judging by modern standards; instead ask, why did these practices arise in their historical context?
Example: foot binding in 10th–11th century CE China (as discussed in class) illustrates how cultural values (honor, marriageability) shape body modification practices.
Cultural differences today:- The instructor shares personal anecdotes about travel experiences (e.g., airport bag policies in the U.S. vs. California) to illustrate everyday cultural differences and the persistence of regional norms.
Takeaway on cultures vs. civilizations:- Cultures are diverse and fluid; civilizations are more comprehensive systems that include social, political, economic, religious, and artistic dimensions.
Writing, language, and early Mesopotamian civilization (Sumer and friends)
Geography and cradle of civilization:- Mesopotamia = "land between rivers" (Tigris and Euphrates); part of the Fertile Crescent in the modern Middle East (roughly modern-day Iraq).
The fertility of river floodplains encouraged agricultural surplus and urban growth.
Sumer (early Mesopotamia):- Comprised of about 15–20 city-states; each city-state had its own patron deity and temple complex.
Sumerian religion was polytheistic, with gods often depicted in anthropomorphic form; each city-state had a primary patron god/goddess.
Ziggurats: stepped temple towers considered the home of the gods; access via exterior stairs; top housed the shrine for the patron deity.
Ziggurats are not pyramids; their purpose was religious, not tomb-like.
Sumerian achievements and material culture:- Invention/use of the wheel (likely driven by pottery wheel technology).
Early brick construction with baked or sun-dried bricks; clay brick architecture and columns.
Glassmaking and early glasswork practices.
Development of a calendar system and beer consumption (drinking with straws from clay vessels).
Writing: cuneiform (puniform) – wedge-shaped characters inscribed on clay tablets using a reed stylus.
Cuneiform represents words and ideas; thousands of characters encoded language; scripts were often memorized by a small literate elite.
Writing was a marker of elite status and wealth; literacy conferred access to administrative, religious, and economic power.
Reading and writing in Sumer:- Early literacy was limited to a relatively small, affluent class; reading/writing often tied to state or temple bureaucracy.
Most people remained illiterate; widespread literacy would not occur until much later in world history.
Language and linguistic context:- Semitic language family includes Sumerian-adjacent groups; Mesopotamian languages were Semitic; languages varied but shared roots.
Reading materials include clay tablets; writing was eventually recorded on parchment/papyrus in other regions as writing systems spread.
The Epic of Gilgamesh (ancient Mesopotamian literature):- Oldest known epic poem; transmitted on clay tablets (originally about 12 tablets in the canonical form).
Narrative centers on Gilgamesh, his companion Enkidu, and their quest and experiences with the goddess Ishtar.
Themes include friendship, the search for immortality, and the meaning of life; the story emphasizes human limitations and the recognition that life is finite and often challenging.
Contemporary debates about historicity and sacred texts include discussions about how biblical authors used earlier myths; some scholars debate the extent to which religious texts reproduce older mythic motifs.
Evidence and interpretation in early writing:- Fragmentary evidence (e.g., Epic fragments) can limit our understanding; advancements come with new discoveries and dating techniques (e.g., carbon dating, stratigraphy).
Codex vs. clay tablets: the transition from clay to parchment for writing occurs later; the material medium reflects technological and cultural shifts.
Four great empires of Mesopotamia and broader context
Early Mesopotamian civilizations and empires discussed:
1) Old Babylonian period (Sumerians and early Babylonians) – early urban, state-level complexity in Mesopotamia; development of centralized administration and legal codes.
2) Assyrians (referred to as Syrians in the talk) – a later expansionist empire known for military organization and territorial control.
3) Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) – expansion and revival of Mesopotamian culture; built upon earlier Mesopotamian traditions.
4) Persians (Achaemenids) – extended influence across a broad region from the Middle East toward the Indian subcontinent and toward the borders of Turkey; later engaged with Classical Greece, setting the stage for later Mediterranean conflicts.
The Persian-Greek conflicts in popular culture (e.g., the film 300) are cited as a way to illustrate the historical dynamics of Persian-Greek interactions.
The plan for the next session:- Examine these four empires in more detail: how they arose, what defined their power, and how they contributed to the development of western civilization.
Relationship to other contemporaneous civilizations:- While the course focuses on Mesopotamian civilizations to form a Western Civilizational narrative, other contemporary civilizations were developing in China along the Yellow River, Central Asia, and civilizational centers in Peru (Andean region) and elsewhere.
Why river valleys mattered:- The earliest civilizations consistently emerged near rivers due to water supply, fertile soils for agriculture, and transportation routes for trade and communication.
In Mesopotamia, the Tigris and Euphrates created a fertile crescent conducive to urban growth and state formation; similarly, the Nile supported Egyptian civilization and the Delta region.
Additional themes and reflections
Cross-cultural differences and common humanity:- Even though cultures differ (e.g., the Moon/Sun/Stars worship, social norms, or body modification practices like foot binding), underlying human needs—security, food, shelter, governance, and meaning—shape civilizations across time.
Multi-perspective historical interpretation:- Historians debate early dates and origins of civilizations (e.g., whether Chinese civilizations emerged concurrently or earlier than Mesopotamian civilizations).
Different sources and methods (written records, archaeological findings, eye-witness accounts) influence our understanding of history.
The nature of evidence and uncertainty:- The farther back in time, the more uncertain our conclusions; written records provide strong evidence, but prehistoric periods rely on interpretation of artifacts.
Ethical and philosophical considerations when studying cultures:- Approaching other cultures with empathy rather than judgment helps understand historical motivations (e.g., reasons behind cultural practices like foot binding).
Recognizing the evolution of morality and cultural norms over time; what seems objectionable today may have functioned within its historical context.
Key terms recap (quick reference)
BCE, CE: Before the Common Era, Common Era.
Paleolithic: Old Stone Age; hunter-gatherer societies.
Neolithic: New Stone Age; agricultural and settled communities.
Ziggurat: stepped temple tower; home of the gods in Mesopotamian cities.
Cuneiform: wedge-shaped script carved on clay tablets; early Mesopotamian writing system.
Sumer: early Mesopotamian civilization with city-states; innovations include wheel, brick architecture, and writing.
Fertile Crescent: crescent-shaped region with rich soils conducive to agricultural development.
Epics and literature: The Epic of Gilgamesh as one of the oldest known literary works.
Civilizational indicators: urbanism, religion, governance, social hierarchy, writing, arts and sciences, material culture.
Core empires in Mesopotamia: Old Babylonian, Assyrian, Chaldean (Neo-Babylonian), Persian (Achaemenid).
Language families: Semitic languages common to Mesopotamian peoples and related groups; writing and literacy tied to elite status in early societies.
Study tips based on the notes
Focus on the progression from prehistoric to historic: how writing (cuneiform) alters governance, economy, and culture.
Understand the four empires as a ladder of expansion and influence in Mesopotamia, and how they contribute to Western civilizational foundations.
Be able to explain why civilizations arise near rivers and how geography shapes cultural development.
Compare and contrast cultural practices with modern viewpoints, using empathy to understand historical contexts.
Remember the key artifacts and architectural forms (stone tools, pottery, brick construction, wheels, ziggurats) and what they reveal about