Breadth study 1: scepticism
escalating fears of witchcraft
Changing ‘types’ of witchcraft:
Rise in witchcraft due to conflation of diabolism and maleficium
Witchcraft and the reformation:
Malleus maleficium -- written by Heinrich Kramer in 1486 as a guidebook for witch hunting, heightening catholic fear of witches
Puritanism -- catholic church considered corrupt because it takes money to denounce sins, heightening protestant fears of catholics being diabolical
‘Devil’s mark’ and other rational identifications like swimming test were discussed in Daemonologie 1597
Witchcraft legislation, 1604 statue -- James I’s ‘zero tolerance’ to all witch-craft as treasonous made trials more possible
fraudulent cases
Boy of Burton
Thomas Darling went hunting and fell ill with fits, Alice Goodridge was identified as he was said to suffer symptoms when she spoke with him. She was searched for marks and admitted her familiar had harmed him
He was exorcised by John Darrell. The case unravelled when assize courts found that Darrell was manipulating witchcraft “victims” like Darling and Somers, to exploit fears of witchcraft for money
Significance: gained attention of English clergy, including archbishop of Canterbury and Bishop Bancroft who created 1604 canon that required licence for performing exorcisms
The Pendle swindle
Edmund Robinson claimed 2 greyhounds (who turned into Frances Dickinson) attacked people and he had witnessed a gathering of witches
Significance: the magistrates Shuttleworth and Starkie were sceptical of the testimonies and sent reports to the privy council, with the Bishop of Chester assigned to investigate the trials. Suspects including Frances Dickinson were examined and found to have no rational identifications, they were later questions by King Charles. Edmund admitted to making up the story for revenge against Dickinson for not paying for cow. Proved accusations motivated not just by the supernatural
The demon drummer of Tedworth
John Mompesson, land owner and JP, who interfered w/ the case of drummer William Drury who was investigated and arrested for fraudulently raising money for the poor with a forged pass. His family experienced disturbances like drum sounds, scratching, sulphur smell and bible being burned, which gained the attention of curious visitors
Significance: it was reported in newspapers, including one by Glanvill, who wanted the royal society to scientifically study witchcraft, but disproved by people like John Webster as fraudulent. The case was also attacked by Becker and Beaumont, suggesting rational explanations like servants causing disturbances, and it’s also suggested that Mompesson’s dealing of Drury’s case was down to him being a parliamentary soldier
The case of Jane Wenham
She had a reputation for being a witch and many stories of witchcraft about her. She was accused of bewitching Matthew Gilson for not giving her straw, Anne Thorne accused her of making her suffer fits, causing the trial proceedings. She was found as being unable to say the lord’s prayer and had admitted to bewitching people, used as evidence in trial
Lord Chief Justice Sir John Holt
Oversaw at least 11 witchcraft trials, each acquitted. Incl. 1694 Mother Munnings, by refusing evidence from almost 20 years ago and didn’t accept evidence from a man who was at an alehouse before seeing her familiar polecat and 1690 Elizabeth Horner who possessed children to walk up wall
Sarah Murdock trial: he was prepared to put accuser on trial for fraudulent claims, first time accuser put on trial by him was Richard Hathaway
sceptical publications
Reginald Scot’s ‘discoverie of witchcraft’ in 1584
Claimed insufficient evidence for witchcraft, leading him to doubt far-fetched charges like cannibalism and be critical of child witnesses at Chelmsford trials. He argued women believing they were witches may have melancholia or delusions, and claimed witches harming people/animals would use natural means or rational explanations like poison and not curses
Critical of the catholic church and their cruelty to witchcraft suspects
Significance: short term impact was limited due to James 6 (had copies of the book burnt and criticised him Daemonologie), long term impact in inspiring John Webster
Samuel Harsnett’s ‘fraudulent practices of John Darrell’
Criticised the catholic church for suggesting exorcism is possible w/ prayer, believing casting out devils is only done by God
He surveyed people Darrell exorcised and discounted Somers’s fits
Significance: Darrell published a pamphlet in response, which caught attention of John Deacon ad John Walker, two ministers who published ‘dialogical discourses’ that argued the devil couldn’t possess people with his powers and demanded proof from Darrell
Thomas Ady’s ‘a candle in the dark’
He cited the bible and used rational explanations, like suggesting the swimming test can be manipulated or tricks used to make them seem innocent and familiars have no biblical precedent
He defines witches as idolators and magicians according to the bible, accused Catholics of reinterpreting scripture to allow witch hunts and critiques work promoting witchcraft like Daemonologie
Significance: George Burroughs of Salem used the book in his defense to no avail, beginning of decline in trials due to anti-witch hunt work
John Webster’s ‘displaying of supposed witchcraft’
Believed witches existed but used their own powers and not the devil’s
Criticised the demon drummer and Pendle swindle cases for being fake, that Mompesson had lied and Robinson was being manipulated by his family
Significance: Oxford academic Seth Ward and John Wilkens, founder of royal society, wrote responses in support. Taken seriously by the royal society for his scientific and credible papers on chemistry and other subjects
Balthasar Bekker’s ‘the enchanted world’
Used the bible as his primary source, but preferred to stay unbiased, unlike Scot who had relied on rumours and stories
Argued the devil had no body or corporeal form so couldn’t possess or influence people into being witches on Earth
Doubtful of witchcraft cases and said every case had deceptions involved, or were inconclusive. He believed there were natural explanations that will one day be discovered explaining supernatural cases
Significance: 4,000 copies sold in 2 months and quickly translated into other languages including French, Italian. There were 131 Dutch works criticising him for causing decline in witch trials. He lost his job as a minister and was put on trial for blasphemy (acquitted)