History Notes

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### 15.3 The rise of the emperor

In this topic, you will:

- examine the change of power over the emperor in Japan.

#### Emperor

Someone who rules an empire, renews a group of customs and creates clear speaking cultures, language, and things different in Japan, but certainly what?

The faith contrary is, one Japanese clan, known as the Yamato clan, became more powerful than all others. Under the rule of this clan, the organisation of Japanese society began to take shape. A type of constituent government was formed and a system of taxation was introduced, but the most significant change was the appointment of an emperor – a supreme ruler who was believed to communicate with his gods and possess magical powers.

#### The Yamato rulers

The Yamato clan gained control of southern Japan from their territorial base on the central island of Honshu. They developed great military forces to protect this territory. While other clans across Japan still technically controlled their own territories, the leaders of these clans pledged their loyalty to the Yamato chief, knowing they could never defeat him in battle.

The Yamato chief’s strong rule evolved into a circle of provinces controlled by junior clan leaders. Each of these chiefs ensured that the supreme leader was obeyed and that taxes were collected.

Even though Japan was ruled by a series of clan leaders, a system developed that recognized one Yamato chief as the supreme leader. From around the seventh century onwards, this leader eventually became known as emperor. The emperor was regarded as the political and symbolic head of his country and claimed to be descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu. Clan leaders across Japan were required to show their respect by making payments to him to demonstrate their loyalty.

#### A centralised government

Prince Shotoku, a Yamato prince who ruled from 593 to 621 CE, was a key figure in establishing a centralised government and strengthening the control of the Yamato clan. Modelling the system of government on that of the powerful country of China, he created a new constitution that gave all power to the emperor, who had to be obeyed by all Japanese people. Shotoku also established a large bureaucracy with 13 different ranks and introduced Buddhism and Confucianism to Japan.

After him, in 646 CE, Emperor Kotoku introduced a series of reforms that further strengthened the centralised government. From then on, all land in Japan was said to belong to the emperor. Nobles were made to pay taxes to the emperor either in goods (such as rice or silk) or in labour (by working on building sites or serving as soldiers). To administer this system of taxation, the country was divided into provinces, each governed by a governor appointed by the emperor.

In 710 CE, the city of Nara was established as the first official capital of Japan, and the emperor’s palace was built. Thirteen years later, the new centralised government ruled Japan.

#### The Heian period (794–1185 CE)

In 794 CE, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to a new city he had commissioned called Heian-kyo (modern-day Kyoto; see Source 7). Heian remained the official capital of Japan for the next 1000 years. This move marked the start of a period in Japanese history known as the Heian period (794–1185 CE). The Heian period became known for Japanese art and culture, but it was also during this time that the emperor began to lose control, and the eighth century marked the beginning of the feudal period of Japan.

#### The Imperial Court

Although he was considered the supreme ruler of Japan, the emperor did not involve himself in the day-to-day running of his country. Special advisers and ministers were appointed to carry out these functions. The emperor was removed from his people, living in a beautiful isolated palace known as the Imperial Court. It was a place of luxury and privilege for a select few. The reality of life outside the palace did not intrude.

During the Heian period, the Imperial Court was dedicated to fine arts and learning, both of which flourished. Music and writing were encouraged, and poetry was a central part of life at court. Both men and women were encouraged to write. Ladies at court dressed in elegant kimonos, made from silk and often composed of up to 16 layers. Although men wore robes with fewer layers, they were still required to dress elegantly and according to tradition.

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### KEY CONCEPT

Confidentiality

Source 5: Former US President Donald Trump in a study of Emperor Naruhito in Tokyo, Japan, in 2018.

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### Headlines

I am of legal and military education and work to address the need of religious law now. I have worked for action in Tokyo, Japan, a clearing party in Japan, and I have been able to go to the United States to establish the kingdom of the Empire.

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### Mission

China, Korea, Japan can be informed about the mission of the world and its origins and belief and efforts addressed by Alexander Vernermann. “Who do you want?”

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### Sources

A direct departure from the local man and the junior Yamato chief, given under the mid-fifth century BCE.

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### OTHER MANUFACTURAL ACTIONS IN CONTROLISM

We put off our publication map for negotiations, closed in a national system of transmission in any form.

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### OUVRID 15 JAPAN BREAKING THE SHOULDER

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a national system or transmitted in any form or by any means.

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Men who belonged to the court had little contact with the outside world unless they were appointed as the governor of a province. At court, it was generally considered more important that a man be a good poet than a good administrator.

The court was often entertained with poetry or music contests, or through scrolls of picture stories. Physical activities included archery and kemari – a traditional game in which players kicked a leather ball to each other without letting it touch the ground.

#### The emperor’s power weakens

After the death of Emperor Kammu in 806 CE, a series of weaker emperors ruled over Japan. Their reigns resulted in the central government becoming increasingly removed from the daily governing of the provinces.

Outside the city of Heian-kyo, the emperor’s power and control grew weaker. Land that had been given permission by the emperor to organize and administer large rural estates – called shoen – became more and more powerful. Originally, these were plots of land given to Buddhist monks to grow crops on, without paying tax to the emperor. Later on, emperors began granting shoen to nobles and officials as a reward for loyal service. Over time, the noble families who owned the shoen became increasingly wealthy and powerful because they not only controlled the land (which was still tax-free) but also collected taxes from the peasants living on it.

These noble families built up their own private armies to protect and police their shoen. The armies were led by generals known as shoguns and were made up of warriors called samurai. Eventually, the emperor began to depend on these private armies for support. This process marked the beginning of shogun rule in Japan.

#### The city of Heian-kyo

Heian-kyo was a planned city, established in 794 CE by Emperor Kammu. It went on to serve as the official capital of Japan for the next 1000 years. Today it is known as Kyoto.

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Source 4: A practical project comes into respect our strengths.

#### Heian period

Shoguns

Centralized rule

Between the heart and preparation of the fire and the power of the policies towards hereditary driving the Hague shipments.

Samurai

Subservient warriors: the word ‘samurai’ means ‘one who serves’.

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Source 1: An actual representation of Japanese training beyond uncertain.

#### Mongol invasions of Japan

One of the most significant events during the Kamakura shogunate was the Mongol invasions. The Mongols, having conquered China and Korea, planned an invasion of Japan. A total of two invasions in the late 13th century were repelled by the Japanese.

In 1274, a Mongol army of 40,000 men set out from Korea in nearly 800 ships to attack Japan. This was the first time the Japanese clans were forced to unite to fight a common enemy. The Mongol army used superior fighting techniques and weapons. The Japanese forces were outmatched. After one day of fighting, the Japanese took control in a major battle. As the Mongol soldiers retreated to their ships that night, a storm arose, sinking dozens of ships and drowning 13,000 men. The remaining forces were unsuccessful in their invasion attempt.

Seven years later, in 1281, a second Mongol fleet returned, determined to conquer Japan. It was much larger, with 4000 ships carrying approximately 140,000 soldiers. Once again, as Mongol soldiers prepared to attack the Japanese, a massive typhoon hit. It destroyed most Mongol ships, and most Mongol soldiers drowned. Any survivors were hunted down and killed by the samurai.

As a result of the failed invasions, there were very significant changes in Japan. The Japanese believed that their gods had saved Japan from the Mongols. They called the storms kamikaze, meaning divine wind. This seemed to confirm that Japan was protected by supernatural forces. The samurai also adopted different fighting styles and weapons modified from those they had seen the Mongols use.

### 15.5 Significant individual: Tokugawa Ieyasu

Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616) was the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate that lasted almost three centuries. His successful military career spanned six decades and enabled him to reinforce his control over all facets of life in Japan. After years of civil war, Ieyasu was declared the shogun in 1603. This brought stability, unification, and peace to the country.

#### Early life

Ieyasu grew up during the Warring States period in Japan. This was a time of great upheaval and division throughout the country. He was separated from his mother when he was two years old, and at the age of five, his father – a daimyo – sent him away as a hostage to the powerful Imagawa clan. During the journey to the Imagawa, Ieyasu was captured by another clan and held for two years. He was finally released to the Imagawa when he was seven, after his father was murdered by a close associate in 1549.

As a teenager, Ieyasu received extensive military training from the Imagawa. He became a lieutenant for the clan leader, Imagawa Yoshimoto. Ieyasu developed a love of strategy, was initiated, and fought his first of several battles. In 1560, Yoshimoto was killed, so Ieyasu returned to his hometown to assume control over the family castle.

#### Military career

At the head of the family, Ieyasu formed a strategic alliance with Shogun Oda Nobunaga. This ensured that Ieyasu could guarantee the safety of his family’s castle while also building his own army. In time, he became an important daimyo (see Source 4). As an ally of the shogun, Ieyasu distanced himself from the civil war that was still raging in Japan. Instead, Ieyasu focused on consolidating power within his local domain. When Nobunaga was killed in 1582, he was succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who saw Ieyasu as a major rival. To avoid conflict, Ieyasu vowed to be loyal to the new shogun. In 1589, he demonstrated this loyalty by assisting Hideyoshi in defeating a major daimyo clan – the Hojo – who held a large territory on the coast. As a reward, Hideyoshi gave Ieyasu the former Hojo territory, and Ieyasu moved his large army there – to a small fishing village called Edo (modern-day Tokyo).

Avoiding further conflict, Ieyasu focused on strengthening and growing Edo (see Source 5). Notably, he undertook engineering projects, including developing a water supply system and improving food supplies for the army. Ieyasu also focused on the people, confiscating all weapons from peasants to avoid any revolts.

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### 15.6 Women in Shogunate Japan

In this topic, you will:

- examine the role of women in Shogunate Japan.

Women were seen as less important than men in Shogunate Japan. They had few freedoms and were mainly responsible for the household.

Most historical sources are written by or about men, which means there is only limited information regarding the role of women in Shogunate Japan. There is, however, some evidence that they were allowed to inherit property and could move around freely under certain shoguns.

#### Marriage and everyday life for the higher classes

An upper-class girl’s education involved learning domestic duties and some academic disciplines, such as reading, writing, history, counting, and philosophy.

In order to increase a family’s social status and wealth, it was common practice for daughters to be married into families of higher class. Women had no say in this arrangement and were expected to obey their husband and father-in-law once married. If a woman became a widow, she was not allowed to remarry.

#### Women of the warrior classes

Most women learned some combat skills to defend their homes during wartime. Some women could learn to become onna-bugeisha (female martial artists) or samurai. Samurai women were highly desirable due to their loyalty and discipline. It was very rare for them to fight on the battlefield; instead, their role was to defend towns and villages in times of need.

#### Geisha culture

Geisha were performing artists who were trained in music and dance. Training began during childhood when a young girl would live in a geisha training school. There, she learned musical instruments, traditional dances, poetry, and the art of entertaining conversation.

Geisha provided light entertainment to guests. They were highly respected for their skills, femininity, and wealth. They walked with the utmost elegance, wearing draped kimonos, platform shoes, and elaborate makeup. This included a white powdered face, blackened teeth, small red lips, and red and black eye makeup.

A geisha was expected to continue training throughout her life. Geisha earned money, but it was often given back to their okiya (geisha house).

#### Peasant women

Women in the lower classes enjoyed greater freedoms in life. They would work on farms or as servants for the rich and look after their children. Wives of artisans or laborers could assist with their husband’s business. These women were able to spend the money they earned more freely than other women, and they were also allowed more freedom to choose who they married.

#### Japanese tea ceremony

The art of tea-making was introduced during the twelfth century by a Buddhist monk who established a specific way to prepare tea. In time, matcha – a powdered green tea – became popular. Tea came to be used as a ritual and was valued among the warrior class.

By the sixteenth century, drinking tea was a measure of the generosity shown by party to contemporary people and embodied harmony, respect, purity, and tranquility.

During the Edo period, tea ceremonies were held on a large scale. However, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, tea ceremonies were organized by the Urasenke school. Young Japanese girls also specialized in studying all the styles for marriage. The vast majority of the girls were active in tea-making activities during the Edo period.

### 15.7 The life of a samurai

All shoguns had armies of samurai. The samurai played a key role in Japanese society during the Edo period (1603–1868).

Each samurai was expected to live and die by a set of rules. During the Edo period, the training for every samurai began at the age of five. Young samurai learned fighting and military skills, as well as reading, writing, calligraphy, etiquette, and public service. By the age of 16, the samurai had finished their training.

#### The bushido code

Samurai lived under a strict code of behavior known as bushido (meaning ‘the way of the warrior’). This code was based on loyalty, respect, and discipline (see Source 15). During training, samurai were expected to withstand many physical challenges. When a samurai failed his lord or dishonored himself, he was expected to commit seppuku (ritual suicide) by disemboweling himself with a short sword. It was believed that by taking his own life in this way, the samurai and his family would avoid public shame and disgrace.

#### Weapons and armor

Samurai spent many days crafting armor made from small pieces of lacquered metal or leather bound together with silk cords. This armor was lightweight (weighing 5 to 10 kilograms) and allowed for ease of movement. The armor was decorated so that others could identify the person wearing it.

Each samurai carried a long sword (katana) and a short sword (wakizashi). Swords became a symbol of honor and status during the Edo period. It was considered a great honor to receive a sword from a lord. Most samurai also carried bows and arrows.

#### Warfare

In early samurai traditions, warfare took place in the open, and there were strict rules governing how battles were fought. Opposing sides would agree on where and when each battle would take place. Once the armies were lined up facing each other, a single samurai would move forward from each side to issue a challenge. The pair would boast of their strength and the power of their ancestors. They would then fire an arrow at each other. Only then would the two samurai engage in combat.

Each samurai would cut off the heads of those he killed on the battlefield and present them to his lord. In later wars, samurai stopped removing enemy heads and simply collected ears, as they were easier to transport.

During the Warring States period in the 1500s, the size of samurai armies increased from thousands to tens of thousands. Military tactics also developed during this period. Armies were organized into various combat units on horseback, but commoners could join the armies as foot soldiers. With the increased use of guns, the samurai began to adopt more protective armor and large-scale warfare.

During the Edo period, the samurai had nobody to fight. As a result, the shogun began to reduce the number of samurai being trained, and many samurai took up administrative positions.

#### Writing a historical description

Historical descriptions pull together the characteristics of a historical source and form a clear narrative for the reader. Because of this, writing historical descriptions is an important skill for all historians to master.

Looking at the two images in Source 15, compare the samurai armor and weapons, using the annotations to illustrate your observations.

### 15.1 Japan under the shoguns: a timeline

An artist’s impression of a natural, a number of a warm-sized FEA school teacher and an driving.

1185

The Minamoto clan takes power from the emperor. Yoritomo is named shogun and establishes a period city in Kamakura with support from loyal daimyo that remain balanced to profit of shogun. Thus Japan for the next 500 years.

1274

The Mongol army launches an attack on Japan, landing on the island of Kyushu; a typhoon destroys most of their ships and forces a retreat.

1333

Ashikaga Takauji helps Emperor Go-Daigo to become the new shogun.

1467

A period of civil wars, known as the Warring States period, begins in Japan between rival warlords; these last around 100 years.

1600

Tokugawa Ieyasu becomes shogun and establishes a base in the city of Edo (modern-day Tokyo), beginning the Tokugawa shogunate.

1603

Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes laws to control the daimyo, including those carrying weapons in public. No common people are permitted to carry weapons. The policy was enforced until around 1868.

1853

Commodore Matthew Perry, a US naval officer, arrives in Edo Bay, demanding Japan open its ports to foreign trade. The shogunate agrees over time to follow.

1867

The last shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, steps down, allowing power to be returned to the emperor under Emperor Meiji.

### 15.4 The shogunates

In this topic, you will:

- examine the changing political leadership in Japan under the shoguns.

- compare the causes and effects of developments under key senior shoguns.

As the power of the emperor and the Imperial Court began to weaken, the heads of Japan’s noble families became increasingly powerful. Because they were able to tax the peasants working on their shoen and sell the crops the peasants grew without paying tax to the emperor (see topic 15.3), they also became extremely wealthy.

#### The emergence of a warrior class

Until the end of the twelfth century, Japan was ruled by the emperor and his government from Heian-kyo (later Kyoto). The decisions made by the emperor were heavily influenced by members of the Fujiwara clan who were his advisers at court. However, the emperor’s government focused almost completely on life and affairs in the capital and failed to pay attention to the rural provinces. Because of this, from about the tenth century onwards, a new warrior class emerged to provide order and control in the provinces that the emperor had neglected.

By the middle of the twelfth century, two powerful clans controlled most of Japan: the Taira and the Minamoto. These clans became particularly influential by supporting factions within the emperor’s court. In addition, they controlled large armies of samurai. Over the next 25 years, the Taira and Minamoto clans fought for control over Heian-kyo and the emperor. By 1185, the Minamoto clan had captured Kyoto and defeated the Taira.

After the battle, the leader of the Minamoto clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo, allowed the emperor to remain as a figurehead but took all real authority to rule over the people of Japan. Japan was now to be ruled by a military dictator known as a shogun, and the government formed under the ruling family was called the shogunate. This event marked the beginning of about 700 years of shogun rule in Japan (see Source 2).

#### The government controlled by the shogun

| Shogunate | Time | Capital | Period |

|---|---|---|---|

| Kamakura shogunate | 1185–1333 | Kamakura | Kamakura period |

| Imperial family (the emperor briefly regained power) | 1333–1336 | Kyoto | Kemmu Restoration |

| Ashikaga shogunate | 1336–1573 | Kyoto | Muromachi period |

| Oda Nobunaga | 1573–1582 | Azuchi | Azuchi-Momoyama period |

| Toyotomi Hideyoshi | 1582–1598 | Kyoto | Azuchi-Momoyama period |

| Tokugawa shogunate | 1603–1868 | Edo (Tokyo) | Tokugawa (or Edo) period |

Note: The Azuchi-Momoyama period takes its name from two castles: Azuchi Castle (Oda Nobunaga’s base) and Momoyama Castle (Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s base).

#### MINAMOTO NO YORITOMO

I am Minamoto no Yoritomo. In 1185, I formed a military government in Kamakura. Though it was thought to be temporary, when the emperor died in 1199, I forced the Imperial Court to recognize my position as shogun. I held the title sei-i taishogun, meaning ‘barbarian-subduing great general’. I ruled on the emperor’s behalf, and all lords had to answer to me.

I introduced a feudal system across Japan and appointed my key supporters as military governors of the provinces. These daimyo were granted land and were responsible for collecting taxes in their territory. They, in turn, gave parts of this land to their servants in return for their military support.

#### EMPEROR GO-DAIGO

In 1333, I, Emperor Go-Daigo, was able to gain the support of discontented daimyo who felt their loyalty had not been rewarded properly. They overthrew the Kamakura shogunate, promising loyalty to the emperor. However, Ashikaga Takauji, a powerful warlord, seized power for himself.

#### ASHIKAGA TAKAUJI

I, Ashikaga Takauji, moved the capital back to Kyoto and took up residence in the Muromachi district, which is why this era is referred to as the Muromachi period. The shogunate was weak, and according to historian George Sansom, I ruled primarily through the army. The daimyo were largely independent, governing their own lands, collecting taxes, and maintaining private armies. At first, the system increased the power of the Ashikaga shogunate, mainly because it had the support of the emperor. However, as weaker shoguns came to power, the Ashikaga shogunate faltered. For the next few decades, from 1467 to 1573, Japan fell into a prolonged civil war called the Warring States period. My shogunate’s power declined.

#### ODA NOBUNAGA

In 1573, after a century of civil war, a powerful warlord named Oda Nobunaga took control of Kyoto and began the process of reunifying Japan. Ruling until 1582, I consolidated political power in Kyoto and removed rival daimyo.

A military man, I reorganized the army into separate divisions of cavalry and foot soldiers and equipped them all with guns. My army proved to be unbeatable against more traditional samurai armies, bringing much of Japan under my control. I was assassinated in 1582, on the verge of defeat, after one of my generals rebelled against me.

#### TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI

I am Toyotomi Hideyoshi. In 1582, I became the ruler of Japan and continued the process of reunification, gaining control of the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu. Despite being the son of a peasant, I was a great believer in a strict class system and banned peasants from carrying weapons or engaging in trade. I was killed in 1598 during a failed invasion of Korea.

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When Shogun Hideyoshi died, Tokugawa Ieyasu’s army was the strongest in Japan (at almost 80,000 men).

Hideyoshi’s soldiers triumphed against the army of another daimyo at the Battle of Sekigahara in October 1600, which was one of the most important battles in the history of feudal Japan and the last major internal conflict in the country.

Ieyasu stripped all land from daimyo who opposed him and allocated it to his allies in return for their loyalty. In 1603, the emperor elevated Ieyasu to shogun.

#### Shogun of Japan

At the age of 60, Shogun Ieyasu introduced many new laws and policies to ensure his position was strong, unchallenged, and permanent (see Source 6). After two years, he introduced the hereditary aspect of the position of shogun by retiring and passing the title to his son, Hidetada. However, he remained a key adviser (see Source 7) and was responsible for foreign affairs.

#### Selected Ieyasu’s achievements as shogun:

- Introduced laws that linked the emperor’s spiritual authority to the shogun’s political power – this meant that the emperor could not act without the shogun’s approval.

- Established a hostage system – all daimyo had to swear loyalty to the shogun and send their families to live in Edo as hostages.

- Imposed laws on all daimyo that required them to reside in Edo with their families every second year – this centralized power and reduced disputes over land.

- Controlled a quarter of the country’s land and secured an income from a 40% tax on the harvests collected.

- Built the largest castle in the world in Edo, with a network of roads, stone walls, moats, and warehouses. Edo became a bustling town and port.

- Controlled an army of over 150,000 men and a navy with thousands of ships.

#### Legacy

In 1616, Ieyasu fell ill and died. He left a strong family lineage and lasting peace in Japan. He accomplished the kind of leadership that warriors before him had been attempting for over a century. According to his wishes, he was honored as a Buddhist deity at the Toshogu Shrine in Nikko.

The Tokugawa shogunate established by Ieyasu lasted until 1868 and is more commonly referred to as the Edo period. Historians describe this period as a time of economic growth and strict social order, where arts and culture flourished. Perhaps most significantly, war and conflict were at a minimum.

### 15.6 Social groups in Shogunate Japan

In this topic, you will:

- examine the social structure of Shogunate Japan.

- distinguish between the social groups and their relationship with each other.

Feudalism was a system for organizing groups of people within society. Like the system in place across much of medieval Europe, feudalism in Japan classified social groups in order of importance. Each of these groups had certain rights (things they could expect, such as protection) and responsibilities (work they had to perform in return, such as military service or farming). A person’s position in this hierarchy was determined at birth and was strictly defined. People knew what was expected of them and were not able to move between social classes. There were even restrictions on the levels of interaction allowed between certain groups.

Although feudalism was first introduced in Japan under the rule of Minamoto no Yoritomo, who was named the first shogun in 1192, it became stronger during the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868).

#### The emperor

The emperor of Japan was regarded as the spiritual and symbolic head of the country and descended from the gods. From the 12th century onwards, however, the emperor had little real power and his role was mainly ceremonial; he was still seen as the head of state and a symbol of unity. The emperor lived in the Imperial Palace in Kyoto.

#### The shogun

The shogun was the emperor’s leading general. Between 1185 and 1868, shoguns formed their own governments and controlled Japan. As well as serving as the military dictator, they oversaw the everyday affairs of the country and were responsible for collecting taxes.

#### Daimyo

These were regional warlords allowed to govern provinces in return for pledges of loyalty and military support to the shogun. While the shogun controlled 25% of the land, the rest was divided among the daimyo. The shogun’s authority depended on the loyalty of the daimyo. Each daimyo controlled a province and maintained a private army of samurai who were paid in rice. The daimyo’s power depended on the size of their land and the military assistance of the peasants living in the province, who paid taxes in rice or labor.

#### Samurai

Samurai were warriors who served daimyo with loyalty and discipline. They were paid in rice and given land to live on. Samurai were expected to follow the bushido code, which emphasized honor, loyalty, and self-discipline. They trained in martial arts and military tactics. More information on samurai is provided in the next topic.

#### Peasants

Peasants were the largest single group in society, making up about 90% of the population. Their primary responsibility was to farm the land and pay taxes to the daimyo. Peasants had few rights and were forbidden from owning weapons or leaving their land without permission. They lived in small villages and worked hard to support their families.

#### Artisans and merchants

Artisans and merchants were considered lower in status than peasants because they did not produce food. Artisans crafted goods such as swords, pottery, and textiles, while merchants traded these goods. Despite their wealth, merchants were looked down upon because they were seen as profiting from the labor of others. Merchants in the larger towns were often involved in banking, trade, and entertainment.

#### Outcasts

At the bottom of the social ladder were two marginalized groups – the eta and hinin. The eta were associated with jobs considered impure, such as handling dead animals or tanning leather. The hinin were non-landowners who worked as beggars, entertainers, or prostitutes. Outcasts were shunned by the rest of society and lived in segregated communities.

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### 15.2 Life before the shoguns

In this topic, you will:

- explore how the environment influenced the way of life in Japan.

Archaeologists believe that Japan was initially settled by humans around 30,000 years ago. Over time, groups of settlers from the nearby mainland (particularly China and Korea) continued to arrive in Japan. The fact that Japan is made up of many islands, and that each island is very mountainous, meant that different groups of settlers formed isolated communities. Over time, these communities developed extremely diverse customs and traditions.

#### The influence of geography

Japan is a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean formed by the peaks of underwater mountain ranges. More than 3000 islands are part of Japan today, but most people have always lived on the four largest: Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Hokkaido (see Source 2).

Japan’s rugged landscape means that only 15% of the land can be farmed effectively. As a result, people tended to settle in river valleys and coastal regions that are flatter and more suited to agriculture. The lack of suitable farming areas means there has always been fierce competition between people for fertile land. Commonly grown crops were soybeans, wheat, barley, and millet (a type of cereal grain), and these formed the basis of the traditional Japanese diet. Rice was also grown, but this was mostly eaten by the wealthy.

Japan is situated in an area of high volcanic and earthquake activity. It is also subject to regular tsunamis as a result of earthquakes.

The difficulty of living and farming in the mountains encouraged many people to earn their livelihoods from the ocean. Early settlers fished from coastal villages, and to this day, seafood remains an important part of the Japanese diet.

The sea also isolated Japan from the rest of Asia, and as a result, Japan developed its own unique religion, arts, and social structures.

#### The earliest settlers

Archaeological evidence suggests that people traveled to the Japanese islands around 30,000 BCE. A second group of settlers followed in around 14,000 BCE.

Historians refer to these early people as Jomon (which translates roughly as ‘cord-patterned’) because of the distinctive pottery with rope-like patterns that archaeologists have discovered from this era. Other artifacts – including tools, weapons, and figurines – suggest that there were settled communities in the north of Japan at this time.

#### The clan system

Over time, small, independent societies and states formed on the islands of Japan. Each of these states was made up of different clans – groups of families related by blood or marriage. Each clan honored a range of different gods. Some were spirits of the trees, winds, rivers, and mountains, while others were spirits of dead ancestors or clan members.

Each clan was led by a group of warrior chiefs who protected the people in return for a share of the crops that were harvested each year. Local wars between rival clans broke out regularly as they fought one another over access to resources such as fertile land.

#### Shinto creation myth

Shinto is the oldest religion in Japan and has played a significant role in the way Japanese society has evolved. According to the Shinto creation myth, the gods Izanagi and Izanami were asked by the spirits to create a new land. They were given a spear, which they dipped into the ocean. As they pulled the spear out, drops fell from it, forming the first Japanese island. Izanagi and Izanami settled on the island and gave birth to all of the islands that now form Japan. They also gave birth to a range of different gods, who took charge of the islands.

While giving birth to the god of fire, Izanami died. Izanagi traveled to the underworld to bring her back, but in doing so, he brought many impurities back to Earth with him. Those impurities cause human wrongdoing and suffering.

uslims to gain control of key religious sites in a region known as the Holy Land. These wars went on to influence many aspects of modern

European societies.

Governments, laws and social

structures

Governments, laws and social structures were

important in societies across the medieval world. b These laws and systems helped to create order,

define the roles and responsibilities of all citizens,

and set out systems for reward and punishment. ° Over time, laws and teachings evolved and became

more complex. In medieval times, the differences between religion and the law were not clearly

defined. Medieval rulers (such as kings) were heavily influenced by the Church and the Church was also

heavily influenced by the king.

Feudalism

One of the most important social structures during the medieval period in Europe was a system known as feudalism. Feudalism began in Europe around 900 CE and spread across Europe over the next 150 years. Under feudalism, society was organised according to a strict hierarchy

(social structure) that was based on religion, law and social customs. Feudalism was a system of privileges and obligations for every person in society — from the king at the top to the peasants at the bottom.

How feudalism worked

Under feudalism, relationships in the hierarchy were between lords (people higher up in the hierarchy) and vassals (people lower down in the hierarchy).

e The king was the most important member of society. The king was lord to all people. He owned most of the land in his kingdom and was believed to rule with the authority of God. The Church also owned some land.

8B What were the key features of societies in the medieval world?

wealthy and impo

e In order to run his kingdom effectively, the king granted sections of land (known as fiefs) to

rtant people in society — such

as nobles and church officials. Nobles were vassals to the king. In return for their fief, each noble

provided the king

with their loyalty and military

support. For example, if the king was attacked or

war broke out, eac fight for him.

few rights. Source feudalism worked.

h noble would provide men to

Each noble then granted smaller sections of their fiefs to a number of knights below them. In return for this land, the knights offered their protection. Each knight then allowed peasants (also known as serfs) to live on their land in return for payment or rent. Peasants would often pay their rent by working and farming the land. They would then pay in money or in crops. Peasants were at the very bottom of the hierarchy. They had very

2 shows how the system of

OBLIGATIONS PRIVILEGES Nobles King e vassals to e lord to all king e grants e provide land to money and vassals knights to lord Nobles , Nobles and church e lord to Knights officials knights e vassals to - e grant land church to vassals officials e provide ; \ protection Dye Knights and military Knights e lord to ue to peasants/ ord serfs e grant land to vassals Peasants e vassals h to all RY s O (DOCE WENK Peasants / serfs and food to lord

Source 2 Feudalism was based on a set of group within society.

Before beginning a detailed study of medieval Europe

and the Black Death, it helps to look briefly at some of

the main features that influenced daily life, such as:

e belief systems and religions

e governments, laws and social structures

e conflict between societies (including important battles and wars)

e trade between societies.

Belief systems and religions

Belief systems and religions were the foundations on which all societies across the medieval world were built. These belief systems influenced almost every aspect of life. The clothes people wore, the foods they ate, the songs they sang and their understanding of the world were all influenced by their beliefs.

The spread of Christianity

When the Roman Empire collapsed in the western part of Europe in 476 CE, ordinary people living

there no longer had the structure of Roman law or

the protection of Rome’s army against attacks from barbarians. Over a short period of time, social order broke down and attacks on people’s homes and property were common. The religion of Christianity offered people hope during this difficult time. Christianity is a religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ as recorded in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Living according to the word of God ensured that a person’s soul would go to heaven, whereas a life of sin would lead to an eternity in hell.

In Europe’s early medieval period, Christian missionaries travelled great distances to spread the religion to people including Germanic tribes (such as the Vandals, the Franks and the Visigoths) as well as the Vikings. A branch of Christianity known as Catholicism was the only recognised religion. The Catholic Church, led by the Pope in Rome, played a central role in the lives of all people — from the richest to the poorest. It was not uncommon for

people to pray up to five times a day, and everyone attended mass on Sunday to praise God. The Roman Catholic Church came to dominate most societies in Europe. Its teachings strongly influenced how people lived their lives.

Churches, cathedrals, monasteries and nunneries were built across different regions of Europe and played an important role in the community. They provided education, health care and spiritual guidance and support. Since most people could not read, their understanding of the world was shaped by the teachings of the Church.

Support for the Church was so strong that in 1096, at the request of the Pope, tens of thousands of people from across Europe volunteered to fight a series of religious wars known as the Crusades.

The Crusades were fought between Christians and

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Source 1 Christianity was central to the lives of people all across Europe during medieval times. It influenced what they wore, what they ate and their understanding of the world. Because very few people at the time could read, important stories and lessons from the Bible were told through stained glass windows in churches and cathedrals.

Vandals Franks

The Franks were Germanic tribes that invaded the Roman Empire in Europe during the 5th century. * Dominating parts of modern-day France, Belgium and I western Germany, the Franks established the most powerful Christian kingdom of early medieval Europe.

The Vandals were a Germanic tribe who originated in eastern parts of Europe and moved at the beginning

T of the 5th century. They maintained a kingdom in

4 North Africa from 429 until 534. In 455, they attacked M and plundered the city of Rome.

Angles and Saxons

Ë The Angles and Saxons were tribal peoples from northern Germany and Denmark who invaded Britain from around 410 CE. They were recruited by the Britons and Celts to help defend against invasions from other tribes. They came to rule Britain and became known as ‘Anglo-Saxons’.

asa

4 Ostrogoths 1 The Ostrogoths moved from a region north of the Black Sea into Italy after the fall of the Western

1 Roman Empire in the late 5th century. Under the leadership of their king, Theodoric the Great, they | established the Sole anado Gi a

Huns The Huns swept down from the Mongolian steppes

Visigoths =

The Visigoths were one of the most important of the Germanic peoples, separating from the Ostrogoths L © of central Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. They were in the 4th century. They raided Roman territories ¿£ skilled archers and horseriders, fierce in battle. The

4 repeatedly and founded kingdoms in Gaul (modern- Bs Huns weakened the Roman Empire in Europe and day France) and Spain. SN onai the Gupta Empire of India in 550.

a ON OE

| ae Vikings ae l Neb tiee © | The Vikings were tribes of seafaring people from Arabs included a number of tribes who moved from a = aregion in the north of Europe (now known as = region in today’s Middle East known as Arabia. They 4 Scandinavia). They raided, traded, explored and se moved into Egypt and parts of northern Africa from Ñ settled regions across Europe and Asia from the late around 642, conquering cities and spreading the A 6th century. | religion of Islam

The Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings was fought in 1066 in England after the death of the English king, Edward the Confessor. Edward died without an heir to the throne, so a number of men believed they had

the right to rule England. One contender, Harold Godwinson (the powerful Earl of Wessex), had himself crowned king almost immediately, but Edward’s cousin William (Duke of Normandy - an area settled by Vikings in France) believed that he was the rightful king. Later that year, the Saxon army of Harold Godwinson and the Norman (Viking) army of William met in battle near the town of Hastings. After winning this battle, William was crowned king of England and became known as William the Conqueror. He introduced a number of Norman beliefs and traditions to England —

the most important of these was the system of feudalism. Feudalism changed the way society and laws in England and other societies across Europe were organised.

The Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars fought between Christians and Muslims at various times between 1096 and 1290 in a region of the world

Ps en meee as BSE ae NS Soe Ieee Source 4 A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Battle of Hastings in 1066

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ae ee

8B What were the key features of societies in the medieval world?

known as the Holy Land - now made up of countries such as Israel, Lebanon and Syria. The main aim of the First Crusade was to gain control over important religious sites in and around the city of Jerusalem. Jerusalem was an important religious city for Christians,

of the world. It also saw Christian crusaders return to Europe with many new goods and ideas from the Holy Land that went on to change European society in many positive ways.

THE ROUTES OF THE FIRST CRUSADE

Muslims and Jews at the time and continues to be to this day. Before the First Crusade, European merchants and travellers to the Holy Land (including Jerusalem) were on good terms with the local Arabs. However, things changed when the Seljuk Turks, a militant Muslim group, took control of the city. They closed Jerusalem to Jewish and Christian pilgrims. This caused the Pope to call for Christian volunteers to form an army and recapture the city.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

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Jerusalem

LEGEND Cities Main routes followed by the First Crusade —~— Rivers

The resulting conflicts caused a tremendous loss of life on both sides and sowed the seeds of

religious tensions that continue

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to the present day in that part

9.1 Medieval Europe: a timeline

= 5 A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry

-E fy depicting Norman cavalry troops disembarking for their battle with Anglo-Saxon forces at Hastings in England 476 The Roman 1066 Empire in The king of England, Edward

Western Europe collapses; start

of the medieval

period

the Confessor, dies. Harold Godwinson declares himself king. William of Normandy invades England, defeats Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings and is crowned King William | of England.

1096 The First Crusade begins; the first of eight wars to be fought

813 1042 Charlemagne dies Edward the Confessor becomes king of England

800 between Christians Charlemagne, king of and Muslims over the the Franks, is crowned 1050 next 175 years

_ emperor of the Holy

A militant Islamic group, ~ Roman Empire e Selj

the Seljuk Turks, take

An artist’s impression of Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor

we Source 1 A timeline of some key events and

mar, from Rossmoyne Sénior High School untile022-12-31.

7

9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

An illustration from the

Toggenburg Bible (c. 1411) of two victims of a plague known as the Black Death

An artist’s impression of Gutenberg’s

1347 printing press A deadly virus breaks out in

1315 Sicily and quickly spreads c. 1450 across Europe, killing

The Great Famine begins; it lasts for two years and kills millions of people across Europe.

Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press in Germany

between 50 and 90 per cent of those who catch it; the pandemic becomes known as the Black Death

1215 ise)

The Magna Carta, the first The Peasants’ Revolt takes place in

ever document outlining the England; peasants revolt against strict rights of the English people, 1337 rules imposed on wage rises and working is drawn up and King John is sae Eee aoe following the severe labour forced to give it his royal seal. petitive arian shortages caused by the Black Death.

1187

] England and France Muslim forces again capture okas

Jerusalem, providing

9.2 Feudalism in medieval Europe

Europe’s medieval period lasted for about 1000 years, beginning almost immediately after the collapse of the Roman Empire in Western Europe in 476 CE. It was a time of great change over a vast area — from the Viking homelands in the north to the Mediterranean Sea in the south, and from the Atlantic coast in the west to the borders of Russia and the peoples of the east (see Source 1). Over this time, the borders and rulers of European societies changed countless times as people competed for territory and power.

Without the Roman army to enforce the laws, society largely broke down. Barbarian raids were common, so people had to find new ways to protect and sustain themselves. A system known as feudalism held the answer for many societies across Europe. Feudalism was introduced across Western Europe between the 8th and 11th centuries and was a kind of

social system based on rights and obligations relating to land ownership. It shaped medieval European societies for hundreds of years.

The origins of feudalism

As shown in Source 1 on page 208-09, tribal people began invading Western Europe from about the 4th century CE. These groups included the Huns, Visigoths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons and Vikings. The ancient Romans called them all barbarians. Some of these tribal people were warlike and aggressive. During the rule of the Roman Empire, common people had been protected against these invaders by the soldiers of the emperor. When the empire fell, there were no laws or soldiers left to protect these common people. As a result, they moved onto lands

Source 1 A map of medieval Europe (c. 1360) from a 1911 atlas of historical maps

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9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

owned by wealthy and powerful lords, where they could be protected by the lord’s private army and take shelter in his castle during attacks. As payment, these people worked the lord’s land

for him and tended his animals. This was the beginning of feudalism.

How feudalism worked

Feudalism was a way of organising a society through a hierarchy. A hierarchy is any system that classifies its members from top to bottom in order of importance. In a feudal society, everyone from the king to the poorest peasant had certain rights (things they could expect, such as protection) and responsibilities (work they had to perform in return, such as farming).

Under feudalism, relationships in the hierarchy were between lords (people higher up in the hierarchy) and vassals (people lower down in the

hierarchy). However, feudalism was not simply a top-down structure where the people at the top could tell the people below them what to do. Obligations were mutual (two-way). For example, a king (lord) had an obligation to the nobles directly below him (his vassals). He provided them with land to live on (Known as a fief). In return, each noble promised to obey the king and provide military support when needed. At the same time, each of these nobles (lords) had obligations to the knights directly below them (their vassals). These relationships carried on down the hierarchy, as shown in Source 2.

In a feudal system, a person could almost never change their social position. If a person was born as a peasant (at the bottom of the feudal hierarchy), he or she died as a peasant. Peasants could not become nobles, no matter how hard they worked or how intelligent they were.

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9.3 The feudal manor

Under feudalism in Europe, land not The private strips of land, given to serfs to work for themselves, belonging to the ruler or the Church were usually scattered throughout the manor. The serfs’ first was mostly divided into manor lands priority was to work the lord’s land. They worked on their strips in

what time remained. Each manor was owned by a noble or A,

knight who was given it by his lord as Hayward — a person who > Steward — the aaa a fief. Manor lands were made up of the guarded crop fields to ensure - manor managor SEa d (the lord’s land d ts & livestock did not damage them ty Whioialso looked am emesne (the lord’s land), and peasants g r “Song Sa BE <a and serfs farmed the land to meet their

own needs.

Under this arrangement, the lord of a manor provided serfs on his estate with a place to live and the means to survive. In return, they provided him with their labour. They also provided taxes (a portion of what they produced on the land they farmed). Most serfs were not free to leave the manor lands and had to have the lord’s permission to do many everyday tasks.

šti Ga lands were divided into three fields. r year a different field was not farmed to allow the soil to recover its nutrients. While crops were

_ being harvested in a second field, a third was being planted. Different crops were grown at different times so that the soil was not drained of any particular nutrient.

, Bailiff - a peasant | farmer who owned a small tract of land. He collected and organised taxes, looked after manor repairs and helped the steward.

* Village church and grounds — where religious services, marriages, funerals, © school tuition and local markets were held.

supplies fish. Its waters were also used for cooking,

É Check your Peering O. 3 te oat $ washing and waste disposal.

Evaluate and create

1 Look carefully at Source 1. Imagine you are a serf living on medieval manor lands. Write a short diary entry describing a typical day in your life.

Source 1 A modern artist’s impression of a typical feudal manor

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9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

$ Forests — where the lord and his vassals hunted for After a harvest, stock were allowed game (e.g. deer and boars). Gamekeepers patrolled the vs » tograzeona field’s stubble; their _ forests to ensure that manor peasants did not hunt there.

s ~ Fortified manor house __ hand. Threshers would then (or castle) — where the beat harvested crops to free, lord and his family lived. the grains (such as wheat). a

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In medieval Europe, a number of different groups made up society. These groups were organised in a strict hierarchy - from the very rich and powerful to the very poor and powerless.

The king

In medieval times, the king (and occasionally a queen) sat at the top of the social hierarchy. All of the land ruled by the king was believed to belong only to him. In most medieval European societies, the king kept about 25 per cent of all land for himself and granted permission to nobles and Church officials to use the rest. The king enjoyed great wealth and privilege, hosting lavish banquets and balls. However, the role of king was also difficult - much time was spent administering the country, planning or fighting wars, and fending off challengers to the throne.

Nobles

Below the king was a group of noble families loyal to him. They often lived in large manor houses built

on land granted to them by the king (known as fiefs). These manor lands were farmed by peasants and serfs who were allowed to live there by the nobles in exchange for labour and food. Noblemen often spent their days attending to business on their land, hunting, attending church and ruling over their vassals.

Church officials

In medieval Europe, the Church was extremely powerful and influential. The Pope and the Church were supported by a large network of Christian workers — cardinals, archbishops, bishops, deacons, abbots, monks, nuns, village priests and friars. Some of these people (such as abbots) were often given fiefs by the king or ruler. By acquiring land and by collecting taxes and payments from the people who lived on it, the Church became very wealthy. For example, in England, the Church and the nobility owned about 75 per cent of all the land between them. The Church was not required to pay taxes.

Source 1 A medieval artist’s impression of peasants harvesting grapes and tending grapevines on a feudal manor. In the

foreground, the lord of the manor is inspecting their work.

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9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

Other members of the Church

Devout Christians in medieval Europe often chose to serve God as monks or nuns. Their lives were controlled by their vows of chastity (no sexual relationships), obedience and poverty. They devoted their lives to serving God and their superiors. This meant living a simple life - praying many times a day (including late at night and early in the morning), caring for the poor and sick, and performing their religious duties. To help them keep their vows and show their devotion, monks and nuns lived apart from the community - monks in monasteries and nuns in nunneries. > | In medieval times, monks were usually the

LUR ; “5 3$ KL. only people who could read and write. Some were

NA aes ; ae historians, and others were librarians and keepers of Source 2 A 16th-century artist’s impression of monks creating important documents for feudal lords. Many others manuscripts copied or translated important manuscripts, such as

the Bible and ancient medical texts, from around the keyconcept: Significance

world. The medieval Church played an important role in preserving ancient documents that might otherwise The Catholic Church have been lost to us today. The Catholic Church (which later became known as

the Roman Catholic Church) was a very significant institution in medieval Europe. Its head was the Pope. He was seen as God's representative on Earth by believers. In medieval times, the Pope had enormous religious and political authority, even influencing kings. One of the Pope’s greatest powers was the ability to excommunicate (expel from the Church forever) members of the faith - a punishment that terrified medieval Christians. An excommunicated person could no longer go to church, and his or her soul was

doomed to live in hell. e = . = ; ; F Source 3 A 12th-century artist’s impression of a knight Mier A a aa e a W swearing allegiance as a vassal to his lord in return for favours

the life of medieval Christians from birth to death. Its such as a fief many religious festivals filled the calendar. Many were

named after Christian saints and martyrs (people s

who died in the name of their religion). People’s lives Knights typically revolved around the activities of the village or town church.

People learned from childhood how the Church expected them to behave and what they should believe. Obeying the Church’s teachings helped to preserve the social order in medieval Europe.

For more information on the key concept of significance, refer to page 189 of ‘The history toolkit’.

As a group, knights made up only a small percentage of the population. In feudal society, though, they played a particularly important role. Through the feudal hierarchy, many were given grants of land from their lords. In return they were expected to protect their lords when required, and also fight

for the king. In addition to this, many knights also received income in the form of food and supplies from peasants in exchange for protection.

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Medieval food

There were no supermarkets, refrigerators or ovens in medieval times. People killed their own animals and preserved meat by salting, smoking or pickling it. Spices were also used to disguise the taste of meat when

it was old and rotting. Sometimes dogs were used to test this meat before it was eaten to see if it was safe. Vegetables were commonly dried or pickled. Grain was ground into flour to make bread. People used spoons, knives or their fingers to eat; instead of plates, most people ate off thick slices of bread called trenchers.

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Source 3 A 15th-century illustration of a rich man’s feast

Eating habits of the rich

The rich ate the meat of both domestic animals (such as cows, pigs

and sheep) and game animals (such as deer, wild boars and pheasants). They also ate fish, fruit, soft cheese, eggs, coloured jellies, vegetables, sauces and soups, salads, white bread, pies and tarts, and ornate sweet dishes called subtleties. Food was washed down with ale, wine or mead (a brew made from honey and water).

Banquets were held on important religious feast days, and to mark events such as marriages, coronations, special birthdays, tournaments and the arrival of important guests. Important people (such as members of the lord’s family) sat at a higher table than other diners. Feasts often lasted for hours. In between the many courses, diners were entertained by acrobats, minstrels, troubadours, storytellers, jugglers and jesters.

Eating habits of the poor

The poor ate a simpler and less varied diet than the rich. It included stews, grainy bread, vegetables and fruit (when available), milk, hard cheese, porridge made from oats or barley, and perhaps some nuts

from the forests. Most peasants ate their main meal for the day while working in the fields. If peasants were lucky enough to live near the sea or rivers, they ate fish. Generally, however, they ate very little meat, as they were often too poor to own and raise animals. Hunting for game (wild animals) in the lord’s forests was forbidden.

Medieval entertainment

Many pastimes in medieval Europe were the privilege of the wealthy. These included lavish banquets and, for the men, activities such as hunting, falconry and playing chess. Wealthy women might embroider, stitch tapestries or listen to musical performances.

Hunts were typically conducted in the woods and forests surrounding feudal manors. Sometimes, women, riding side-saddle, would be part of the hunting party. Access to these areas was forbidden to the poor; instead, they hunted for rabbits and birds in the fields.

Source 4 This 14th-century illustration shows a hunting party of nobles carrying birds of prey on their wrists. They are led by a falconer, who trains and looks after these birds. The long stick in his hand was used to beat trees and bushes to flush out small game animals, which would then be caught by the trained birds of prey.

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9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

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Source 5 This painting by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Children’s Games (c. 1560), shows a in medieval Europe.

wide range of games played by children

Falconry involved using trained birds of prey such The poor did not have many opportunities for as eagles, falcons and hawks to catch small animals entertainment, but during special feasts, such as at such as pigeons and hares (see Source 4). The type of harvest time, there might be dancing, dice throwing, hunting bird used indicated a person’s status - eagles, ball games and wrestling, for example. Many of for example, were only owned by kings. Appearingin the games played by medieval children, such as public with a bird of prey on a leather-strapped wrist hopscotch and hide-and-seek, are still played today

was a sign of a person’s wealth and social status. (see Source 5).

Check your learning 9.5

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9./ Living conditions in

medieval Europe

In addition to fashion, food and entertainment, there were also marked differences between rich and poor in terms of living conditions.

Living conditions for the poor

Conditions for the poor were not very comfortable. Peasant farmers often lived in a one- or two-roomed hut shared with domestic animals such as chickens and pigs (see Source 1). This was often one of a number of similar huts on a feudal manor (see Source 1 on pages 224-25). These huts were usually dirty, sooty, smelly and dark. Walls were mostly a mixture of mud, manure and sticks (called wattle and daub). They might be painted white with lime. Roofs were made from thatch (straw). Windows were narrow openings that could be boarded up in winter. The toilet was a hole in the Sy storage area Â% ground outside. MG | Peasants who worked as servants in manor houses and castles lived in more secure and pleasant surroundings; however, their daily lives were hard like those of other peasants, with few personal comforts.

animal pens

wattle and daub walls

central open fireplace for cooking and warmth

roof made from thatch

Living conditions in towns and cities

During the medieval period, towns across Europe were usually small, with populations of only a few hundred people. Some, however, grew into larger cities over time. The wealthy townspeople often lived in larger houses, close to the centre of town. The poor lived in dirtier, more cramped quarters. Narrow cobbled or dirt streets separated rows of wooden buildings with thatched roofs where these people lived. The buildings were a serious fire risk — they were made of highly flammable materials and people lit fires and candles inside for warmth and light.

opening in roof to allow smoke to escape and air to enter

utensils might include some pottery bowls and jars and an iron cooking pot

beds made from sacks of straw

dirt floor covered from

Source 1 An artist’s impression of a medieval peasant’s hut

time to time with straw

simple furniture, which might include a table, seat and storage box

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9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

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blankets, sheets, feather pillows, fur covers and linen curtains. Tapestries covered up draughty cracks in the stone walls of castles.

Living conditions for the wealthy The noble family would wash in tubs (often with

the help of servants) and dress. They would also visit

The rich included kings and queens and their the garderobe (a medieval toilet), which was a small, extended families, feudal lords and their ladies, and cold room with a seat that opened directly onto

the families of knights. When not fighting wars, a stinking pit or moat below. A chamber pot kept the wealthy led mostly comfortable lives, often in in the bedroom was typically used for toilet visits manor houses and castles. The Church, too, had great during the night. Strips of torn fabric were used as wealth and certain members lived very comfortably toilet paper.

despite their vow of poverty. After breakfast, the lord and lady would usually

In times of peace, castles were the settings for feasts, visit their private chapel. The lord’s tasks for a day workshops, markets, romance, raising and entertaining might include making decisions about the manor,

children, crafts and music. They were also the focal receiving rents, presiding over a manor court and

point for military training, the day-to-day running of planning to visit another castle he owned. At

the realm, and for administering justice. night, there might be a feast for an important guest A typical day for a lord’s family began when the (perhaps the king) or to celebrate something special

sun rose. By then, servants were preparing meals such as the end of a tournament.

and had lit the fires in the kitchen and great hall.

Check your learning 9.7

Remember and understand Evaluate and create

1 What were some of the typical activities and events 4 Work in groups to construct a model of either the that took place in medieval castles? hut of a poor medieval family or the bedroom of

2 How would a typical lord in medieval Europe spend a wealthy medieval noble. Share responsibilities, his day? including research, preparing materials, assembling

3 Why was there a high risk of fires in medieval towns? the model and presenting it to the class.

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9.8 The medieval castle

Garrison — where soldiers lived; it would be packed with soldiers in time of war

The wealthiest and most powerful families in medieval Europe lived in castles which were scattered across the countryside. Within the castle walls lived not just the family but a whole community able to serve all the needs of the family. The medieval period saw the development of some distinct castle designs; these are covered later in the chapter on page 257.

portcullis (gate)

. ~H JRX 5 t ` .

Men worked pulleys to

H

\ \ lower the drawbridge

and raise the portcullis. $ Sw) A

Access bridge — anyone wanting to enter the castle would be visible to the guards _ for quite some time before

_ they reached the gate.

= Drawbridge — this could be raised for security reasons.

The castle gate and gatehouse were always guarded.

Check your learning 9.8

Remember and understand

1 Write a short definition for each of these terms: garderobe, solar, garrison, portcullis, cauldron, scullery and dungeon.

Evaluate and create

2 Work with a partner to write a short account of a typical day in the life of either: e awealthy family member living in a castle, or e aservant working in the castle, for example as a cook or stable boy or gardener.

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main bedroom of the Garderobe (toilet) — with a lord and his wife seat that opened directly onto the moat below. The private quarters of the lord and his family, called the solar. This was a bit like a family room or lounge. It was

_ often next to the great hall.

The great hall, with

its often straw-

~ lined floor, served "| many purposes.

It was a banquet

hall, a court, a

place to receive

visitors, and a

4-2, meeting place. In the early days of

N castles, it was also

=) a bedroom for the

#22 lord and his family.

Oe fe Y freshwater well, w ) might tap into an E underground spring

hich

49! S ~ 3

a: garden — used for growing herbs and vegetable

Lg ; (big iron pots) hung over BS } Ax f 7 RA : Wer open fires and spits;

— fe Tit 4. sometimes a cauldron 4) might contain a number of different dishes, each packed separately. The scullery, where dishes and pots were washed, was often outside.

Ñ S

S$ dungeons (u ~ prison cells)

The basement room of a castle tower would = => be used as a cool room to store food (e.g. salted meat and bags of grain), wine and equipment under the surface of the moat.

nderground

: A R $ Workshops — where craftspeople, such as blacksmiths, furniture makers, cobblers, armour makers and potters, made their goods for the castle occupants and were trained.

a

Source 1 A modern artist’s impression of ‘home sweet home’ for many wealthy and powerful families in medieval Europe

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Source 1 A 19th-century artist’s impression of Eleanor of Aquitaine

9A rich task

The achievements of medieval women

The societies of medieval Europe were dominated by men. The Pope and bishops controlled the Catholic Church, and the king and his nobles governed all other social and legal matters. The man was the head of his household, just as the king was the head

of his kingdom. Both noble and peasant women were expected to work in the family home until they were married. After marriage, they had to run their husband’s household and raise children. Typically they received very little education and had few rights.

Every woman was required to obey her father or husband in all matters and was not able

to make decisions for herself. Despite these challenges and restrictions, some women in medieval Europe became very influential and their stories live on to this day.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) During her lifetime, Eleanor of Aquitaine was queen of France and England, and also ruled England

as regent. She was an intelligent, creative and sensitive woman. Eleanor was born in France in 1122. She was the daughter of the Duke of Aquitaine and heir to his land. When her father died, however, the land became the property of Louis VI, the French king. When she was 15, she married the king’s son and later became queen of France. She took part in the Second

S

Crusade alongside her husband, taking 300 women to fight and help care for the wounded. She was not happy with Louis VII and the marriage was annulled (declared non-existent) in 1152. In 1154 she married the Duke of Normandy, who later became Henry Il, the king of England. Eleanor supported her sons when they revolted against Henry in 1173, and was imprisoned for 16 years. When Henry II died she was released, and helped rule England with and for her eldest son, Richard the Lionheart.

Joan of Arc (1412-1431)

Source 2 A 19th-century artist’s impression of Joan of Arc

Joan of Arc was born in 1412 in a small French village called Domrémy. As the daughter of a peasant farmer, she received no education apart from the lessons of the Church. When she was 13, she believed she began to see visions and hear the voices of saints. They told her that she would help the French defeat the English and so secure the coronation of Charles VII, then crown prince of France. Aged 18, she travelled in men’s clothing to see Charles. Her conviction and faith inspired many nobles and common people. She helped lead the French to victory, and in 1429 Charles was crowned. Less than a year later, Joan was captured and imprisoned by the English. Wanting to discredit the new French king, they accused her of heresy. Because she refused to confess that she did not hear the voices of saints she was burned at the stake in 1431.

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9A What was life like in medieval Europe and how was society organised?

skilldrill

4 Christine de Pizan (1363-c. 1430) Christine de Pizan was born in Venice in 1363. Her father was Tomasso de Pizzano, a respected physician. She grew up at the court of King Charles V of France, where her father made sure she received a good education. At 14, Christine married Etienne du Castel, a court secretary, and they had three children. In 1389, however, her husband died. Her father and the king were now also dead, and she decided to support her family by writing. Over the next 50 years, Christine wrote many poems, essays and books. As well as entertaining stories

L and love poems, she wrote serious works about the place of women in society, defending them against those who dismissed them as ignorant and worthless.

Source 3 A 19th-century artist’s impression of Christine de Pizan

Using Venn diagrams to compare information from a range of sources

Venn diagrams are simple diagrammatic tools that help you organise your thinking. They help to quickly identify the similarities and differences of two or more things. These ‘things’ can be anything — people, events, political systems and so on. Venn diagrams are a useful tool to compare information you have gathered from a range of sources.

To complete the Venn diagram in Source 4, follow these steps:

Step 1 Think about how each of the three things you are comparing are different. Record these individual features in the non-overlapping sections (A, B and O).

Source 4 A Venn diagram

Extend your understanding

Step 2 Then think about how two of the things are similar or share common features. Write any features that are common to A and B in section D, features common to A and C in section E, and features common to B and C in section F.

Step 3 Finally, think about the features that all three things have in common. Record these common features in section G.

Apply the skill

Use the written and visual sources about the three women provided to compare, select and use the most relevant information as evidence. Copy the Venn diagram from Source 4 into your notebook, and arrange facts from the written and visual sources to show what they had in common and what was different about them.

Consider the following topics: e family connections e education e type and extent of influence.

Consider the place of women in Australian society today.

Create a table to compare the ways in which women’s social

positions are similar, and the ways in which they are different. Investigate the following areas:

e home life

e legal rights

e work and roles performed

e access to education

e family.

In order to collect this information you may need to conduct some additional research on the Internet.

Comparison of women’s social positions in modern Australia and in medieval Europe

Similarities Differences

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9.9 New empires, kingdoms

and rulers

The medieval period in Europe was a time of great change. New groups of people moved and settled across the region; new empires and kingdoms were established; new ideas and beliefs spread throughout the population; and important events such as wars, famines and plagues brought about changes at all levels of society.

The kingdom of the Franks was one of the most important kingdoms in medieval Europe. During the 8th and 9th centuries, it was dominated by the Carolingian Dynasty, which rose to power at a time of great instability in Europe. The Carolingian kings commanded a powerful military force and had a close relationship with the Catholic Church. They created a single kingdom out of much of Western Europe and played a key role in converting tribal groups, such as the Saxons, to Christianity.

The Carolingian monarchy was at its most powerful during the reign of Charles I (also known as Charlemagne). Under Charlemagne, the Christian lands of Western Europe were united to form the Carolingian Empire.

The Carolingian Empire did not last long after Charlemagne’s death in 814. His son, Louis the Pious, and

grandson, Charles the Bald, headed an empire increasingly at war with itself. By 887, the empire had largely been reduced to a few smaller kingdoms. These laid the foundations of what we know today as France, Germany and Italy.

Source 1 An artist’s impression of Pepin the Short, one of the Carolingian kings and father of Charlemagne and Carloman l.

Arrival of the Vikings

The decline of the Carolingian kings was helped by the arrival of the Vikings between about 850 and 1050. Initially they raided coastal settlements and monasteries in England, Ireland, Scotland and coastal France. Over time, however, they came to control large areas of medieval Europe, settling in places they had previously attacked and raided. They built new towns, like Dublin, the capital of modern Ireland, and set up their own kingdoms, such as the Danelaw in England.

The Normans

In France, the Vikings established a strong base.

In 911, a Viking leader named Hrolf defeated the Frankish king, Charles the Simple (a descendant of Charlemagne). Hrolf forced Charles to pay a heavy penalty — a fief (a grant of land) in a region of western France. This area became known as Normandy, which derives its name from ‘Norman’ meaning ‘Northman’ or ‘Viking’. In return for this land,

Hrolf promised to stop raiding and to convert to Christianity.

In their new country, the Vikings (or Normans) adopted and refined some of the political and cultural practices of the Franks, including their language. By the early 11th century, the Normans had made further conquests in Europe and established a kingdom in southern Italy.

The Normans in England

The Normans also had long-standing interests in England. For example, Emma of Normandy (the

sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy) had married the English king Ethelred II. Their son, Edward the Confessor, became king of England in 1042. During his reign, many Normans became involved in English politics.

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9B How did societies in medieval Europe change?

~ f Oe = e ~ > T E ae Cae z - acon a TEs aa

Source 2 A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry (an embroidery retelling the Battle of Hastings, made in around 1080). This scene

shows the mounted soldiers of William, Duke of Normandy, attacking the Anglo-Saxon foot soldiers of Harold Godwinson.

When Edward the Confessor died without an heir to the throne in 1066, a number of people believed they had a right to rule England. One contender, Harold Godwinson (the powerful Earl of Wessex), had himself crowned king that year. Harold claimed that Edward had promised him the throne on his deathbed.

Edward’s cousin William, Duke of Normandy, was another contender for the throne. He also claimed that Edward had promised him the throne on his deathbed. Later that year, he invaded England to take the throne for himself. William’s army defeated Harold’s army at the Battle of Hastings. King Harold was killed, allegedly shot in the eye with an arrow. William (who became known as William the Conqueror) was then crowned King William I of England. For more information on the Battle of Hastings, turn to 9B Rich task on pages 250-251.

After 1066, William I and his Norman nobles began imposing their rule on the English. Many of the former Anglo-Saxon nobility fled to Denmark, Scotland and Wales. William claimed their lands, giving some to the Church and some as fiefs to his loyal followers and knights as a reward.

The Normans built castles in their new kingdom to protect their territory and enforce their rule. They also introduced the system of feudalism already common across mainland Europe.

Check your learning 9.9

Remember and understand

1 Who were the Carolingian kings and why were they so powerful?

2 Why is Charlemagne considered to be one of the most significant rulers of the medieval period in Europe?

Apply and analyse

3 Explain how a large region of France came to be ruled by the Vikings. What was this region called?

4 Why did Harold Godwinson and William of Normandy both believe they were legitimate contenders for the English throne in 1066?

Evaluate and create

5 Explain the relationship between the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and the beginnings of a feudal system in Britain.

6 Draw a simple sketch diagram showing how the system of feudalism worked.

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9.10 Significant individual:

Charlemagne

Charles I (742-814), more commonly known as Charlemagne (meaning Charles the Great), was one of the most important kings in medieval Europe. Charlemagne and his brother Carloman both took the throne of the Frankish kingdom when their father, Pepin the Short, died in 768. After Carloman’s death in 771, Charlemagne ruled in his own right. He was active in overseeing his kingdom and regularly travelled around it. He also set up a network of messengers to report back to him on what was happening. Under his rule, his kingdom rose to dominate Western Europe.

Charlemagne, the man

Much of what we know about Charlemagne today was written by Einhard, a scholar and dedicated servant of Charlemagne. Einhard’s accounts were written at the request of Charlemagne’s son, Louis the Pious, between 817 and 836.

Source 1 An artist’s impression of Charlemagne leading his troops over the Swiss Alps on a military campaign to conquer new territories

Source 2 A medieval bust of Charlemagne, Emperor of the Romans

Source 3 A selection of statements describing Charlemagne

[Charlemagne] was large and strong, and of lofty [grand] stature ... the upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting ...

He ... was temperate [controlled] in eating, and particularly so in drinking, for he abominated [hated] drunkenness in anybody ... While at the table, he listened to reading or music.

He ... had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could express whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He was not satisfied with command of his native language ... [he] was such a master of Latin that he could speak it as well as his native tongue.

He ... cherished [valued] with the greatest fervour [passion] and devotion the principles of the Christian religion, which had been instilled into him from infancy [childhood].

Translated extracts from Life of Charles the Great, a biography of Charlemagne, written by Einhard

Charlemagne, the conqueror

Over his lifetime, Charlemagne fought many wars. His victories expanded the territory under his control. He was helped by the armies of his loyal supporters. Charlemagne had earlier given many of these men grants of land, a common practice among

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the Franks. This was done partly so they could support themselves, and partly so they could equip themselves to help Charlemagne in battle. It also encouraged their ongoing loyalty and support.

Charlemagne, the leader

Charlemagne did not just lead in battle. He was also a leading thinker, introducing many political and social reforms. For example, he set up a common system of currency, bringing back coins as the means of buying and selling goods and services as the Romans had done hundreds of years earlier. He also encouraged the arts and education, setting up a number of schools for both peasants and nobles alike. Many of the cultural and artistic traditions of the Greek and Roman empires were brought back to life during Charlemagne’s rule. As a result, the period of his rule is often described as the Carolingian Renaissance.

His leadership encouraged many new developments in literature, architecture and the arts.

Charlemagne, Emperor of the Romans

Charlemagne had always had a close relationship with the Catholic Church. In 799, he came to the aid of Pope Leo II. The Pope, accused of adultery, had fled Rome. His accusers had threatened to ouge out his eyes and cut out his tongue. Charlemagne escorted the Pope back to Rome and forced his reinstatement.

Pope Leo III was understandably grateful to Charlemagne. On Christmas Day in 800, the Pope crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans. This endorsement from the Pope not only reinforced Charlemagne’s position as the most powerful king, but also ensured that the Catholic Church remained a strong force in Europe (as the ancient Roman Empire had been). Kings that followed Charlemagne were referred to as Holy Roman Emperors.

Charlemagne’s death

In late 813, Charlemagne crowned his son Louis the Pious co-emperor. Shortly after, on 28 January 814, Charlemagne died. He had ruled for 47 years.

9B How did societies in medieval Europe change?

roars. CEE tod om ` EUR p32 eos i, Source 4 An artist’s impression of Charlemagne. Charlemagne established a number of schools for boys from different social classes during his rule.

Check your learning 9.10

Remember and understand

1 Explain who each of the following people were: Charlemagne’s father, his brother, his son.

2 How did giving grants of land to his closest supporters benefit Charlemagne?

Apply and analyse

3 Consider the statements in Source 3 and answer the following: a Are these accounts primary or secondary sources? Why? b Do you think these accounts are truthful and reliable? Give reasons for your answer. 4 Why do you think the Pope decided to crown Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans?

Evaluate and create

5 Conduct research to learn more about the regions of Europe ruled by Charlemagne. On a blank map of Europe, shade the area ruled by Charlemagne when he and his brother took the throne. Next, shade the area covered by his empire at the height of his rule. Use two different colours to distinguish between the two areas. Now use your atlas to discover which modern European countries were originally ruled by Charlemagne.

6 Provide three reasons why you think Charlemagne

deserves to be considered a significant individual.

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244

9.11 The spread of Christianity

One of the most significant and lasting changes

that took place across Europe during medieval

times was the spread and adoption of Christianity. Christianity was one of the legacies of ancient Rome. At first, Roman emperors made every effort to stamp out Christianity across the empire, even feeding Christians to the lions. But over time it became accepted and was declared the official religion of

the Roman Empire in the late 4th century CE. Asa result, Christianity was well established as a religion in Europe when the Roman Empire collapsed and the medieval period began. Its influence and relevance was kept alive by the Catholic Church (today referred to as the Roman Catholic Church). Christianity influenced the arts, education, medicine, architecture and even wars. It also affected medieval Europe’s relationships with other societies such as the Muslim nations of the Middle East.

Source 1 Canterbury Cathedral in England is significant not only because of its impressive architecture but also because it played a vital role in the lives of medieval Christians.

The influence of Christianity across Europe increased under the rule of Charlemagne. He supported missionaries that travelled across Europe converting people who were not Christians. He was a dedicated and passionate believer in Christianity and made constant efforts to improve the religious life across his realm. He defended the Church with his forces and protected the Pope from his enemies in Rome. In 800, the Pope crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor in order to strengthen ties between the Church and the ruler of Europe.

The organisation and influence of the medieval Church

The Church and its leader, the Pope, had great power and influence over almost every person in medieval society. From a very early age, all people, from the very rich to the very poor, were educated in the customs and traditions of the Church that would grant them salvation (entry into heaven). The desire to gain entry into heaven and the terrible fear of hell were strong incentives for people in medieval times to obey Church rules and customs.

By the middle of the 11th century, the Church was a well-organised hierarchy, reaching every level of medieval society. Small parishes, headed by priests, were set up across every region. These parishes were organised into larger dioceses, headed by bishops. Bishops were responsible for all religious affairs. They controlled church courts, which sat in judgement of cases involving members of the clergy and church property, and also ruled over other matters like marriages and wills.

Most importantly, bishops also held the authority to excommunicate any Christian who did not follow Church law. Excommunication prevented people from participating in church services or receiving the sacraments (sacred rituals) - meaning they would spend eternity in hell.

In addition to exercising great power over people in medieval society, the Church also provided many benefits. More than anything, it provided a stable

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9B How did societies in medieval Europe change?

Sourc 2 An illumination (an illustration decorated with gold

or silver) from an early 15th-century French manuscript showing a school lesson

and unifying system of beliefs and rules that all Christians were bound to follow. The Church was also responsible for providing a great deal of practical help. In most parishes the Church established schools and universities, provided care for the poor and sick, and offered legal advice and other community services.

Holy pilgrimages

As Christianity spread across Western Europe, people of all social classes started to set out on journeys to places of religious importance (such as shrines and burial sites). These journeys, known as pilgrimages, were designed to prove Christians’ loyal devotion to God. Each region of Europe had its own sites popular with pilgrims; however, the most sacred pilgrimage site for all Christians was the Holy City of Jerusalem. The Holy Land had been held by Muslim Arabs since 637 CE, but Christian pilgrims had been allowed

to travel there freely. This changed in 1050, when a group known as the Seljuk Turks, who had recently converted to Islam, took control of Jerusalem. They

began harassing pilgrims and refusing them entr j i j 8 8 PMS 8 y Source 3 An artist’s impression of Christian pilgrims travelling

to the city. These events led to the start of a series of to a shrine at the Canterbury Cathedral in England. This shrine religious wars known as the Crusades. attracted many pilgrims during the Middle Ages.

t Meu. Ti é E .

+>. a. a naa

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Religious warfare — the Crusades

The Crusades were a series of THE ROUTES OF THE FIRST CRUSADE religious wars between Christians and Muslims between 1096 and 1270 to gain control over key religious sites in and around the city of Jerusalem — an important spiritual and religious location for believers of both Christianity and Islam.

ATLANTIC k OCEAN ~^, _ “Parise

po)

er = ©

Historians argue about the total number of wars that were fought, but most agree that eight major crusades took place (see Source 4).

Source 4 The dates of the eight major Jerusalem

Crusades LEGEND N ° Cities Main routes followed Date | Crusade = by First Crusade f 1096-1099 First Crusade ae ENS — iN elas Second Pilsad= Source 6 Source: Oxford University Press 1188-1192 Third Crusade 1202-1204 Fourth C d Da The start of the Crusades 1217-1222 Fifth Crusade i , k Following the takeover of Jerusalem by the Seljuk Turks in 1050, ARER aa Christian pilgrims and traders no longer felt safe in the region. 1248-1254 Seventh Crusade Many believed that this new Islamic regime would also move to 1270 Eighth Crusade invade Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire (formerly

the Eastern Roman Empire), which was under Christian rule.

This growing threat caused the Byzantine emperor to ask for support from Pope Urban II in 1096. In response, the Pope rallied Christians all over Europe to fight for control of Jerusalem and to help defend other Christians in the Middle East against the Turkish invaders. This was the start of the First Crusade.

People from all walks of life — from kings to peasants — joined the Crusades. Young people were particularly caught up in the desire to fight in the name of Christianity. Many young peasants who took part in the Crusades were encouraged by their local parish priests to join the fight. The priests believed that young people, free from ‘sin’, would make more successful Crusaders than older people.

Although most people joined the Crusades to return control of the Holy Land to Christians, many people also went for other reasons. During this deeply religious time, most Christians believed pa that taking part would be a sure way of gaining entry into heaven Soürċe 5 An artists ad of a battle during When they died. Some were also hoping to find wealth and fame; the First Crusade, painted in 1490 others were looking for adventure.

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9B How did societies in medieval Europe change?

The effects of the Crusades

Although there were eight major Crusades, only the first was successful in bringing Jerusalem under Christian control. All remaining Crusades were either designed to protect the gains made during the First Crusade or motivated by a desire for wealth and fame. By the time of the Eighth Crusade in 1270, the Holy Land had not been regained by the Christians and many Crusaders had never returned home at all. Some were killed in battle for the Holy Land, while others died of disease or injuries. Others were sold as slaves, never to see their homes and families again.

The Crusades did, however, have enormous effects on Europe and its people. Crusaders who returned home brought new wealth, new ideas, new customs and new products (such as foods, spices, perfumes, pearls and precious stones). The power and wealth of the Church increased greatly. Trade with the East also increased. Goods from the East poured into Europe through trading ports in Italy. With the growth in trade came the desire to explore and discover unknown lands. This, in turn, brought new ideas, greater knowledge and more inventions.

People’s lives improved. New trade and opportunities often meant

. : i Source 8 An artist’s impression of a greater wealth, and with this wealth came better living standards, health medieval Crusader

and access to education and work. The Crusades were

also responsible for weakening the system of feudalism Check your | earning 911 that had dominated Europe for centuries. Many lords

had mortgaged or sold their estates before heading Remember and understand off on Crusades and many more never returned at

all. All of these changes led to a move from a landbased economy to a money-based economy. All of this contributed to increased commerce in towns — causing them to grow into cities.

Why was the Catholic Church so influential in the lives of all people in medieval Europe? List some of the positive contributions made by the Catholic Church to society in medieval Europe.

3 What event caused Pope Urban II to call for people to go on the First Crusade?

4 Why did so many Christians take up

New inventions and devices (e.g. the windmill, the Pope Urban Il’s call to go on a crusade?

magnetic compass, new ways of drawing maps) Apply and analyse

Some effects of the Crusades

New products and goods (e.g. foods, perfumes, 5 When did the First Crusade take place? What was precious metals and stones) the goal of this crusade? 6 List three reasons why the Crusades were such New castle designs and weapons significant events for societies across medieval Europe.

Weakening of the feudal system and the Evaluate and create development of a more money-based economy 7 Consider what you have read about the takeover of Jerusalem by Seljuk Turks in 1050. a What was the immediate effect on the Middle

East region of Jerusalem’s takeover by this

The growth of more towns and cities

New ways of practising medicine (Arabic medicine

was far more advanced than that in Europe at group of people? Why? the time) b Predict what might have happened in 1096 if Pope Urban II had ignored the Byzantine Source 7 Some of the new ideas and technologies emperor's request for support.

Crusaders brought back to Europe from the Holy Land

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9.12 Other causes of change across medieval Europe

All societies change over time, even if this change is very gradual. New developments, new ideas or contact with other societies often bring about changes. Sometimes these changes can be positive, other times they can be negative. This was certainly the case in medieval Europe.

Major events

In the late medieval period, there were three major events that brought about changes to societies across Europe:

e The Great Famine - This famine mainly affected northern Europe (including England) from 1315 until 1317. The poor suffered greatly. A monk described how ‘plump dogs were stolen ... men and women in many places secretly ate their own children’.

e The Hundred Years War - This war was fought between England and France between 1337 and 1453. The English were driven out of Normandy, ending their claim to the crown of France. A young

W 3 set E we ane

awe

woman, Joan of Arc, was burned at the stake for her role in uniting the French.

e The Black Death - This pandemic arrived in Europe in 1347, reducing the population by about a third. Its most common form was the bubonic plague. It was caused by bacteria found in the blood of the rat flea. Medieval Europeans knew nothing about germs, and paid little attention to hygiene.

Short-term impacts of these changes

The events briefly described above dramatically changed the societies of medieval Europe. France’s population alone was halved during the 14th century. Peasants fled the Black Death, creating huge labour shortages. Those prepared to stay (on feudal manors

or in towns) often demanded higher wages to do so. Suddenly they had more bargaining power because their services were in demand. In towns, these changes led to outbreaks such as the Peasants’ Revolt against the high taxes they were being asked to pay.

TSB <

Source 1 The Black Death killed millions of people across Europe, as depicted in this medieval manuscript.

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9B How did societies in medieval Europe change?

Long-term impacts of these changes

Systems such as feudalism and Christianity had helped to stabilise the societies of medieval Europe over hundreds of years. There were, however, changes from the 13th century onwards that made people more aware of the world beyond Europe and their place in it. In time, this led to a number of social and political movements. Some movements questioned aspects of Church power and influence (the Reformation), while other movements looked to build on

the knowledge and teachings of ancient Greece and Rome (the Renaissance). Some movements even challenged ways of thinking and learning about the world by testing new theories in the areas of medicine, biology and astronomy (the Scientific Revolution).

Some of these new ways of Source 3 A magnetic compass looking at things were helped by new inventions such as:

e the magnetic compass — invented > aie by the Chinese, it seems te have “semen por ef s- y been first used in Europe in the amg Pie late 12th century to help sailors i navigate the English Channel

e the astrolabe - an ancient navigation tool used across the European and Islamic world. Together with the magnetic compass, the astrolabe enabled European sailors to travel across oceans to claim new lands

e the printing press — invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450, it revolutionised people’s access to the written word.

Enca

Source 2 A page from the Source 4 An astrolabe was used to chart Books could now be produced Gutenberg Bible — the first book the movements of planets and stars. quickly and cheaply. Most ever printed using the printing importantly, new ideas could press spread rapidly. Check your learning 9.12 Remember and understand Evaluate and create 1 What major events in the 14th century led to 4 Conduct some further research on the magnetic significant changes in medieval societies? compass, the astrolabe and the printing press. 2 Which areas of Europe were most affected by the Create a short report outlining how each of these Great Famine? inventions helped bring about change in medieval

Europe. Include information on the following: a the effect on people in Europe 3 In your own words, describe some of the factors that b the effect on trade in Europe

led to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381. c the effect on European exploration.

Apply and analyse

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9.14 Crime and punishment

Options How different developments influenced life in medieval Europe is discussed in the context of the following topics: e Crime and punishment e Military and defence systems e The growth of towns, cities and commerce. Choose only ONE of these topics for study.

254 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 8 western australian curriculum

Throughout the medieval period in Europe, laws were extremely harsh and punishments were even harsher. Those in charge of law (kings and the nobility) believed that peasants and common people would only behave properly if they feared what would happen to them if they broke the law. Even the most minor offences had serious punishments.

Under feudalism, different courts dealt with different types of offences. Minor matters, such as a woman gossiping and nagging her husband, were heard by village courts. If found guilty, a woman like this (known as a scold) would be forced to wear a ‘scold’s bridle’ (see Source 2). More serious matters, like a peasant’s son being educated without the lord’s permission, were heard by manor courts. If found guilty, a peasant might be fined or put in the stocks.

The most serious charges were dealt with in Church courts (for charges such as heresy and witchcraft) and the King’s court (for charges of treason). Confessions for such crimes were often obtained under torture (with the use of thumbscrews and other devices). If found guilty, people could be executed by being burned or skinned alive. Traitors were frequently executed by being hung, drawn and quartered. This involved first hanging a person, cutting him down while still alive, then pulling out his intestines while he watched, and finally attaching each of his hands and legs to a horse and having the horses pull him apart.

Source 1 This painting from 1471 shows an ordeal by fire. The woman is trying to prove her dead husband's innocence of a crime against the king by holding a red-hot iron bar in one hand and her husband's head in the other.

=< Wai e ae Source 2 A medieval engraving of a woman wearing a ‘scold’s bridle’ being paraded through the streets by her husband. While wearing the mask it was impossible to speak. Some scold’s bridles had bells on top to draw even more attention to the woman wearing it, increasing her humiliation.

Trial by ordeal

The legal system of early medieval Europe required accused persons to prove their innocence. They did this by swearing an oath before God. Sometimes the oath

of the accused was tested using trial by

ordeal. There were two types of ordeal:

e Ordeal by fire - The accused held a red-hot iron for some time, put an arm in a fire or walked across burning coals. If, after three days, the burn was not healing, they were seen to be guilty (see Source 1).

e Ordeal by water — The accused placed an arm in boiling water, with the same test as above. They also could be bound and tossed into a river. If the body floated, they were seen to be guilty.

Licensed to suki sarvanakumar, from Rossmoyne Senior High School until 2022-12-31.

9C What developments influenced life in medieval Europe?

Trial by combat

Another trial commonly used for members of upper classes was trial by combat, where the accused fought the accuser. Sometimes a champion (such as a strong knight) fought on behalf of a weaker party. The winner (or whoever they represented) was innocent — God was believed to ensure this. Guilty people were punished or killed. They might have ears or hands cut off, or worse.

Changes to the medieval justice system

In 1154, Henry I became king of England. The various types of courts continued to exist during

his reign, but Henry also wanted all his subjects

to have access to royal justice. So he and his court (the king’s court) travelled around the land, hearing cases. At this time, judges also began recording court decisions.

Over the centuries, this initiative continued to be refined. It set the basis for today’s common law, as practised in England and in Australia - where judges decisions, and the penalties for them, are based on similar examples from the past. Another initiative of Henry II was trial by jury. It, too, continues to this day as a key part of the Western justice system.

,

The Magna Carta

By the early 13th century, John was king of England. He was unpopular because he raised taxes, fought a

series of unsuccessful wars and upset the Pope. The Pope was so angry that he banned religious services Check your learning 9.14

in English churches. Remember and understand

Source 3 An artist’s impression of King John of England reluctantly signing the Magna Carta

The nobles decided to act. They negotiated with

King John, forcing him to sign a charter (legal 1 What were some of the different courts in medieval agreement) known as the Magna Carta. The Magna Europe? What sort of cases were heard in each Carta marked a significant legal development in court?

England because it required the monarch to be 2 How was the medieval practice of trial by ordeal subject to the will of others, not just God. No longer changed by the Magna Carta?

could he rule exactly as he saw fit. This is seen as

one of the first steps towards the development of

legal and political rights for ‘the people’ and the 3 The words ‘Magna Carta’ mean ‘Great Charter’ in

start of modern democracy. Latin. Do you agree that it was ‘great’? Discuss in pairs and present your ideas to the class.

4 Do you think that trial by ordeal was fair? Give reasons for your view.

Apply and analyse

The Magna Carta also abolished trial by ordeal. No more could people be condemned, tortured or killed on the grounds of suspicion or rumour.

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9.14 Crime and punishment

Options How different developments influenced life in medieval Europe is discussed in the context of the following topics: e Crime and punishment e Military and defence systems e The growth of towns, cities and commerce. Choose only ONE of these topics for study.

254 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 8 western australian curriculum

Throughout the medieval period in Europe, laws were extremely harsh and punishments were even harsher. Those in charge of law (kings and the nobility) believed that peasants and common people would only behave properly if they feared what would happen to them if they broke the law. Even the most minor offences had serious punishments.

Under feudalism, different courts dealt with different types of offences. Minor matters, such as a woman gossiping and nagging her husband, were heard by village courts. If found guilty, a woman like this (known as a scold) would be forced to wear a ‘scold’s bridle’ (see Source 2). More serious matters, like a peasant’s son being educated without the lord’s permission, were heard by manor courts. If found guilty, a peasant might be fined or put in the stocks.

The most serious charges were dealt with in Church courts (for charges such as heresy and witchcraft) and the King’s court (for charges of treason). Confessions for such crimes were often obtained under torture (with the use of thumbscrews and other devices). If found guilty, people could be executed by being burned or skinned alive. Traitors were frequently executed by being hung, drawn and quartered. This involved first hanging a person, cutting him down while still alive, then pulling out his intestines while he watched, and finally attaching each of his hands and legs to a horse and having the horses pull him apart.

Source 1 This painting from 1471 shows an ordeal by fire. The woman is trying to prove her dead husband's innocence of a crime against the king by holding a red-hot iron bar in one hand and her husband's head in the other.

=< Wai e ae Source 2 A medieval engraving of a woman wearing a ‘scold’s bridle’ being paraded through the streets by her husband. While wearing the mask it was impossible to speak. Some scold’s bridles had bells on top to draw even more attention to the woman wearing it, increasing her humiliation.

Trial by ordeal

The legal system of early medieval Europe required accused persons to prove their innocence. They did this by swearing an oath before God. Sometimes the oath

of the accused was tested using trial by

ordeal. There were two types of ordeal:

e Ordeal by fire - The accused held a red-hot iron for some time, put an arm in a fire or walked across burning coals. If, after three days, the burn was not healing, they were seen to be guilty (see Source 1).

e Ordeal by water — The accused placed an arm in boiling water, with the same test as above. They also could be bound and tossed into a river. If the body floated, they were seen to be guilty.

Licensed to suki sarvanakumar, from Rossmoyne Senior High School until 2022-12-31.

9C What developments influenced life in medieval Europe?

Trial by combat

Another trial commonly used for members of upper classes was trial by combat, where the accused fought the accuser. Sometimes a champion (such as a strong knight) fought on behalf of a weaker party. The winner (or whoever they represented) was innocent — God was believed to ensure this. Guilty people were punished or killed. They might have ears or hands cut off, or worse.

Changes to the medieval justice system

In 1154, Henry I became king of England. The various types of courts continued to exist during

his reign, but Henry also wanted all his subjects

to have access to royal justice. So he and his court (the king’s court) travelled around the land, hearing cases. At this time, judges also began recording court decisions.

Over the centuries, this initiative continued to be refined. It set the basis for today’s common law, as practised in England and in Australia - where judges decisions, and the penalties for them, are based on similar examples from the past. Another initiative of Henry II was trial by jury. It, too, continues to this day as a key part of the Western justice system.

,

The Magna Carta

By the early 13th century, John was king of England. He was unpopular because he raised taxes, fought a

series of unsuccessful wars and upset the Pope. The Pope was so angry that he banned religious services Check your learning 9.14

in English churches. Remember and understand

Source 3 An artist’s impression of King John of England reluctantly signing the Magna Carta

The nobles decided to act. They negotiated with

King John, forcing him to sign a charter (legal 1 What were some of the different courts in medieval agreement) known as the Magna Carta. The Magna Europe? What sort of cases were heard in each Carta marked a significant legal development in court?

England because it required the monarch to be 2 How was the medieval practice of trial by ordeal subject to the will of others, not just God. No longer changed by the Magna Carta?

could he rule exactly as he saw fit. This is seen as

one of the first steps towards the development of

legal and political rights for ‘the people’ and the 3 The words ‘Magna Carta’ mean ‘Great Charter’ in

start of modern democracy. Latin. Do you agree that it was ‘great’? Discuss in pairs and present your ideas to the class.

4 Do you think that trial by ordeal was fair? Give reasons for your view.

Apply and analyse

The Magna Carta also abolished trial by ordeal. No more could people be condemned, tortured or killed on the grounds of suspicion or rumour.

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An artist’s impression of an attacking army laying si j Source 6 artist’s impression of an attacking army laying siege to a castle A mangonel was a giant

: slingshot, flinging rocks or A belfry, with a shelter like that burning pieces of wood. used for the battering ram, let | PP nn = ` attackers run up internal ladders ~~

\-

m

= 4 to a drawbridge, allowing them [MERE =a to mount the top of the wall. * fing the camp of the army laying siege r ~ - i zt Tu =

4 . Ta

me

sai MOR SO CEO chin. ó 4 a Ha. 2 į A ballista was like a king- $ i

sized crossbow that fired ~~ arrow-like bolts of metal. ka

— missiles such as huge rocks or rotting animal carcasses (some infected with

A fF id Hoardings were timber structures jutting out «.. from the battlements. These protected castle = archers. Missiles could be dropped through

holes in the wooden floors of hoardings. Bia an 7 yr Jä e - =

A battering ram (a large tree trunk, / sharpened to a point) was wheeled in, its operators protected by an overhead wooden shelter covered in wet animal skins. It was used to repeatedly ram a gate or section of wall.

Mantelets were moveable

screens used by archers for cover.

SS |<< SS es Crossbows fired heavy = Loopholes (also known as arro bolts of metal that had slits) enabled archers inside the more force than arrows. ® castle to fire on their attackers but prevented all but the most a accurate of arrows getting ie =“) through from the outside.

a

Fa

a scaling ladder eee a ee

A moat filled with water prevented attackers from gaining easy access to castle walls.

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9C What developments influenced life in medieval Europe?

External walls (up to four metres thick) Castle siege from which defenders on the battlements

oi r There were different ways of capturing castles c? i in medieval times. The most obvious was to

launch a surprise attack, smashing the castle defences. However, when the chances of victory from a direct attack were low, armies would instead lay siege to the castle. Siege tactics included surrounding the castle in order to cut off its food supply, poisoning its water supply and digging under sections of its outer walls to gain entry. Rarely was a siege won quickly or easily.

Over the medieval period, many advances in castle siege technologies were made. A variety of these are shown in Source 6.

Skilled longbow archers could fire arrows great distances every five seconds.

A murder hole allowed rocks 1 and missiles to be dropped onto

=! enemies as they entered the castle 4 gatehouse.

ibe

A crenel (the open section of a

SS. z —

aa oe Sis Ñ gas _ A portcullis was a reinforced oe Rr

ETOO eiat | gate, usually made of iron, External walls were . -*5 \ thick to withstand

= the impact of

“u missiles and direct

~ hits by siege engines wheeled in close to the walls.

A merlon (the closed section of the crenellation) provided protection from enemy arrows.

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Medieval warfare

Until about the 12th century, armour was made of chain mail (small hoops of iron linked together), which was fashioned into a knee-length tunic. From about 1300 onwards, however, metal plate armour became more common (see Source 7). Over the years, its design changed further so it eventually protected the whole body. Full-body armour made shields less necessary.

When using a shield, the fighter had only one hand for his sword, so early swords were lighter and made for one-handed use. As armour changed, and shields became less common, the design of swords also changed — they became larger and heavier for two-handed use. The aim of these weapons was not so much to cut as to bash. Two free hands meant that other weapons such as the mace (an iron club), morning star (a spiked club like a mace), flail (a metal ball, often spiked, attached to a chain and handle) and battleaxe could be more easily used (see Source 8).

The bow and arrow was also a popular weapon during the medieval period. Archers were an important force used in medieval battles because G their arrows were easily able to pierce through l armour. There were two main types of bow - the longbow and the crossbow. The longbow was a bow drawn by hand which released an arrow. A skilled archer could shoot arrows very quickly, releasing arrows every few seconds that would travel over long distances. The crossbow was a bow fixed across a wooden stock with a groove for the arrow. The crossbow required less skill to use as it had a mechanism for drawing and releasing the arrow.

Source 7 The type of full-body armour worn by a man-at-arms in Italy in the late 1300s

Source 8 An illustration of a range of medieval weapons, including a spiked club (left), mace (second from left), flails (third and fourth from left) and battleaxes (fifth and sixth from left)

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9C What developments influenced life in medieval Europe?

Connne f fe ameftort abab. ar Dour regar fus (a Vle. E

of the French walled city of Orléans in 1429 during the Hundred Years War. It shows the English forces using cannon fire to attack the city walls.

|) Sa if Gu Bint Due E UnA v6 > nG Monfasrmeur Ious poug a phin:

Gunpowder Check your learning 9.15

Gunpowder reached Europe from China during the 13th or 14th centuries, where it was first developed Remember and understand 400 to 500 years earlier. Gunpowder was another factor that helped to end Europe’s feudal system. It did so by changing how wars were fought.

1 Name three locations where a castle might commonly be built for security.

2 What two main purposes did castles serve in It was first used effectively during the Hundred feudal Europe?

Years War between France and England (see Source 9). Now castle walls could be more easily broken down

Apply and analyse

using weapons fired with gunpowder. By the 15th 3 Explain briefly how both castle design and armour

century, different forms of cannon were becoming design changed over time. Where relevant, explain

commonplace. what aspects of each continued (even if in another The use of firearms in warfare gradually reduced form).

the importance of knights on horseback. Early 4 Study Source 6.

firearms increased the distance between fighting a List three ways of defending a castle under

armies. They also meant that all soldiers in battle attack.

now required armour. This made it more expensive b List three tactics or items an attacking army

to equip an army. Kings, rather than nobles, had to might use to force the surrender of a castle.

take responsibility for this increased cost. As a result, Evaluate and create

the importance of knighthood began to diminish. In place of knights, new types of professional soldiers emerged who led new types of troops.

5 Draw a flow chart to show some of the ways gunpowder changed medieval warfare, both in the short and long term.

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9.16 Towns, cities and commerce

During the early part of the medieval period, societies and economies of Europe were based around agriculture and land ownership. These various kingdoms were largely divided into feudal estates and manors, owned by nobles and farmed by peasants. For centuries, this system was successful because these peasants needed the protection of these nobles and their knights against attacks from barbarians; however, from about 900 CE on, these attacks began to ease. This meant that common people no longer needed the protection from their lords and the system of feudalism began to weaken. Slowly, people began moving and living in towns.

Over the next few centuries, a number of other events further weakened feudalism and fuelled the growth of towns. The Crusades, in particular, played an important role. Before heading off to fight, some lords sold their estates; others never returned at all. Those who did return brought new ideas, new customs and new products to trade. As trade increased, so too did the number of towns. Over time, many of these towns grew into cities. By 1200, there were about 600 cities in Europe, three times

Source 1 The medieval city of Fribourg, in Switzerland. Many of its medieval buildings still remain, including the St Nicholas Cathedral.

as many as there had been 50 years earlier. Many cities also had cathedrals, so they attracted Christian pilgrims as well as merchants.

Types of towns

Across Europe, a number of different types of town began to pop up. Many grew up around castles or manor houses that had been established for hundreds of years, while others were newly settled close to ports, rivers and roads that were important for trade and transport. As trade increased, so did the size

and populations of these towns. To begin with, the populations of these towns across Europe were largely made up of people who had left manor estates. Many of the peasants that resettled there went on to earn a living as skilled craftspeople, labourers or merchants.

New markets, new goods and booming commerce

Not all those who drifted from feudal manors settled immediately in towns. Some chose to travel around as wandering ‘salesmen’. The goods they offered

for sale were often cheap and basic, but the best profits came from selling goods like spices, oils and perfumes from faraway places. The risks of sourcing these goods, though, were high — pirates, harsh landscapes, extreme weather and attacks by wild animals claimed the lives of many merchants and traders. Despite the dangers, some merchants made huge profits and returned to settle in towns in order to establish thriving businesses.

The growth of businesses and guilds

Merchants in medieval Europe mainly sold their goods in marketplaces and at huge open-air fairs held each year. Buyers flocked to these displays and purchases were often made in bulk and taken away the same day on carts.

Over time though, permanent shops and businesses were built and those who worked in the same craft or specialist occupation (such as butchers or carpenters) started banding together to form

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9C What developments influenced life in medieval Europe?

organisations known as guilds. Guilds were similar to modern-day unions and professional organisations in one. They were particularly common in large Italian cities where trade was the main industry. Guild members met regularly to discuss quality standards, conditions of work, fair pay and prices, and to set up apprenticeships for young workers.

The growth of moneylending and banking

As commerce and trade continued to grow in towns and cities, the need for moneylending, banks and financial record-keeping became more common across Europe. The beginnings of these practices originated long before medieval times, but after the Crusades they became more formalised. Merchants in the Holy Land had been acting as moneylenders for generations, so many of these practices were brought back to Europe by the Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. Loans enabled more goods to be purchased and traded, boosting town economies. Some merchant families became so wealthy they even lent money to kings and royal families. Many also invested in the construction of large public buildings, palaces and works of art in their towns and cities.

The independence of towns

As time passed, the growing numbers of large towns and the wealth of the people living there brought about the desire for another change. Townspeople wanted more independence from feudal restrictions and more rights. As mentioned, many towns across Europe during the medieval period were settled on land ‘owned’ by nobles and feudal lords. Many of these lords continued to expect payment for the

use of this land, even after the feudal system had weakened — the only change was that they now demanded payment in money rather than crops. Many townspeople came to resent this. They started to present petitions to these lords demanding release from old feudal arrangements and a set of rights. In return for large payments, some towns were given what they asked for and town charters were drawn in writing to set out what had been agreed by the lord and the townspeople.

1

anik

NS

Source 2 A 15th-century artist’s impression of a covered medieval European marketplace

Rights outlined in many town charters

The ability to trade freely Freedom to enter and leave the town freely The right to establish town laws independently

The ability to hold trials in town courts, rather than the lord’s manor court

Source 3 Some of the rights sought by townspeople and included in town charters

Check your learning 9.16

Remember and understand

1 What changes caused the growth of towns across medieval Europe?

2 How did some of these early towns form, and where?

3 Where could people living in towns buy the goods merchants brought back from distant lands?

Apply and analyse

4 Explain how and why the practice of moneylending came to be adopted in medieval Europe. Where did this practice originate and how did it become common in Europe?

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10.1 The Black Death: a timeline

The hand of a victim of septicemic plague, the It is thought that rarest (and deadliest) form the plague initially of the plague infected rodents like this black rat.

1330s Widespread famine and 1330 plague breaks out in CE

north-eastern China

1346

Plague reaches the trading

city of Kaffa on the Black Sea; Genoan merchants return to Sicily, spreading the disease

Source 1 A timeline of some key events and developments related to the medieval Black Death pandemic

10A How was society organised at the time of the Black Death?

1347

Genoan merchants on their return journey to Sicily spread the plague to Constantinople, Cyprus and then into modern-day Italy; it reaches Venice as well as Alexandria in Egypt.

The plague struck down people of all ages and from all walks of life.

1349

Widespread persecution of Jews, with thousands burned to death; plague reaches Aswan in Egypt and the entire Islamic world is now affected

1353 Some 35 million deaths from the plague recorded in China since the 1330s

1351

1350

1348

Plague reaches the French cities of Marseilles and Paris, then moves to England; it moves along the Rhine River and into modern-day Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg; outbreaks occur in Tunis, Cairo and Gaza; the flagellant movement gains popularity; serious persecution of Jews starts

io À

Sh ï

People known as flagellants who believed the plague was God’s punishment flogged themselves until they bled, in the hope of obtaining God! S forgiveness.

Leader of the Peasants’ Revolt, Wat Tyler, was wounded during a meeting between peasants and the English king, Richard II. Later, Tyler was beheaded.

1381 The Peasants’ Revolt breaks out in England

The Statute of Labourers is introduced, making it illegal for employers to increase workers’ wages; plague reaches Russia

Plague has largely run its course in the countries around the Mediterranean Sea

Check your learning 10.1

Remember and understand

1 In what year did the plague reach Sicily?

2 In what year did serious persecution of the Jews begin?

_ Apply and analyse

3 Using the timeline, calculate how long the medieval plague epidemic lasted

in Europe.

Z Evaluate and create

o d 4 Conduct some Internet research to find out the years in which the Black Death reached Scandinavia. Add this

to your own version of the timeline.

ol Y the black death in europe

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10.2 Life in Asia, Europe and Africa before the Black Death

In order to understand how and why the Black Death spread across Asia, Europe and Africa, it is necessary to look at how societies in these parts of the world were organised at the time, and what living and working conditions were like for the people there. The information below provides a brief outline of what conditions were like across Asia, Europe and Africa before the first outbreaks of the Black Death.

Societies in Asia

The expansion of the Mongol Empire across Asia between the early 13th century and mid 14th century had significant impacts on the societies that it conquered. The Mongols introduced positive changes such as religious freedom, and also expanded trading routes (like the Silk Road) that increased contact

and trade with the West. Not all elements of Mongol rule in Asia were quite so positive though. Their conquests of new regions often resulted in the deaths of many people and disrupted vital activities such

as farming and food production. In addition to this, a series of civil wars and natural disasters across

Asia led to crop failures in the early 1330s. This in

A < A

"i A) { (it i i

ANAA AVAYA ANZA

i Lie ae wii ll

Source 1 A medieval illustration of serfs harvesting grain in a lord’s manor

fields

turn caused widespread famine across the region. Weakened and malnourished, many people were no match for the plague outbreak that followed.

Societies in Africa

Most of what we know about social and economic conditions in Africa during the 14th century relates to North Africa and Egypt. This period saw the dominance of a number of powerful Islamic nations -in particular the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and the Marinid, Zayanid and Hafsid Dynasties across North Africa (covering modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya). Over many years, each of these Islamic nations struggled for control over different parts of the region. Despite many ongoing conflicts, sea trade and commerce thrived. Port cities along the coast of North Africa, such as Tunis and Tripoli, traded extensively with European societies, particularly those on the Italian Peninsula. There were also busy trade routes between Alexandria in Egypt and Constantinople, as well as other ports around the Black Sea. When the plague broke out, all of these trade routes and centres became gateways for the Black Death pandemic.

Societies in Europe

In contrast to societies in Asia and Africa, there is a great deal of evidence relating to the outbreak of plague in Europe. From the 10th century onwards, the system of feudalism that had organised society and provided protection and stability across the continent began to weaken. There were a number of reasons for this, but most historians agree that the changes brought about by a series of Holy Wars (known as the Crusades) had a lot to do with this. New ideas, products and wealth brought back to Europe from these wars

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10A How was society organised at the time of the Black Death?

led to a time of great economic success between the 10th and 12th centuries. Trade with societies across Asia and Africa increased and towns and cities grew rapidly. This prosperity led to a huge increase in

the birth rate. As more and more people moved to the cities, conditions became difficult. Many cities became extremely overcrowded and living conditions were unhygienic. As a result, the diet, housing and general hygiene of the average city dweller was very poor.

Despite the population explosion across Europe, farming methods had remained inefficient and farmers struggled to grow enough food to feed the population. In addition to this, from around 1250 onwards the weather also became unusually cold and wet, causing a series of crop failures. All of these factors led to a number of famines across Europe and many died from starvation. Just like those living in Asia and Africa, the people of Europe were not prepared for what they were to face with the first outbreak of the Black Death.

Historical evidence relating to the Black Death

One of the difficulties associated with studying the spread of the Black Death across Asia and Africa during the 14th century is that very few detailed sources of evidence are currently available. There

are a number of different reasons for this. Although societies there were often quite advanced, the records they kept have either been lost over time or have not yet been analysed by historians in the West. Despite

Source 2 An artist’s impression of a typical medieval town in Italy during the 14th century

this, there are some general sources available that outline the path taken as the disease spread and who was affected.

By contrast, many sources of evidence relating to Europe are available, and Western historians have spent considerable time analysing them. In countries such as England and Italy, local authorities and members of the church kept written records (such as birth and death notices, illuminated manuscripts, population surveys and census information). All across Europe, artists, poets and writers also recorded their experiences for future generations.

Given that much more research and analysis has been carried out on the effects of the Black Death across Europe, this chapter will largely focus on the experiences of the people there.

Check your learning 10.2

Remember and understand

1 What were the positive and negative effects of Mongol conquest in Asia?

2 What were some of the trading routes between north

Africa and Europe?

3 What was feudalism? How did it help to organise medieval societies?

4 Which group of people became the new middle class in medieval cities? Explain why.

Apply and analyse

5 Why do you think medieval peasants, working under systems such as feudalism, might have been attracted to town life?

Evaluate and create

6 With apartner, write a script for a conversation a peasant farmer might have had with his wife to persuade her to leave the manor and go with him to live in a nearby town.

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10.3 Growth of trade and cities

From the middle of the 11th century, European explorers such as Marco Polo (1254-1324) opened up the ‘world of the East’ to Europe. Marco Polo spent many years travelling in China and Mongolia, among other parts of Asia. The luxury goods that he and other merchants brought back included spices, semiprecious stones and silks. Wealthy Europeans were eager for more — and eager for knowledge about this part of the world that had been unknown to them.

Trade was also beginning to boom between European towns and places such as Constantinople, Damascus, Moscow and north Africa’s Alexandria. Goods were carried back and forth along a network of land and sea trade routes (see Source 1), often to be sold in huge open-air markets.

Growing trade routes

Much early medieval trade between West and East took place along the Silk Road. By the mid 1200s, this network of dirt tracks — stretching from China in

and to claim lands in the New World (the Americas). They were most likely motivated by a combination of curiosity and a desire to impose their culture on others they thought of as primitive. Most of all, they had a desire for wealth.

The European sailors of the late 1400s and beyond pushed further and further into unknown waters. Many sailors died at sea looking for new lands and trading partners, but eventually new lands in the East and elsewhere were reached by sea. This opened the door for the exchange of many new products that significantly changed societies.

Not only were these new sea routes faster than land travel they also made it possible to transport greater volumes of cargo. There were many risks, including being shipwrecked on rocks, facing wild storms at sea and being attacked by pirates. However, as ship design improved and navigational skills strengthened, some risks were reduced.

KEY MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES AND GOODS TRADED

the east, westwards to the Mediterranean Sea — was controlled by the Mongol Empire. Mongol protection meant safer passage and more reliable delivery of goods.

LEGEND Trade route

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

But this reliance on the Silk Road for trade would not last. New ways to reach markets faster and more cheaply would be sought. This would eventually change the balance of power between the East and West and weaken the authority of the Mongols.

Carpets N Dried fruits

New sea routes

Ivory Almonds Olive oil Countries such as Portugal and Spain led the push in Z a ayo , kilometres Europe to discover new sea routes to eastern markets — Source 1

=

Novgorod Furs

= Alexandria

Source: Oxford University Press

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New towns and cities

During the early part of the medieval period, societies and economies of Europe were based around agriculture and land ownership. These various kingdoms were largely divided into feudal estates and manors, owned by nobles and farmed by peasants. For centuries, this system was successful because these peasants needed the protection of these nobles and their knights against attacks from barbarians; however, from about 900 CE on, these attacks began to ease. This meant that common people no longer needed the protection from their lords and the system of feudalism began to weaken. Slowly, people began moving to, and living in, towns.

A number of different types of town began to pop up. Many grew up around castles or manor houses that had been established for hundreds of years, while others were newly settled close to ports, rivers and roads that were important for trade and

Source 2 A 15th-century illuminated manuscript showing Marco Polo sailing from Venice in 1271, on his way to the East

~~, EID co

transport. As trade increased, so did the size and populations of these towns. To begin with, the populations of these towns across Europe were largely made up of people who had left manor estates. Many of the peasants that resettled there went on to earn their living as skilled craftspeople, labourers or merchants.

Over the next few centuries, a number of other events further weakened feudalism and fuelled the growth of towns. The Crusades, in particular, played an important role. Before heading off to fight, some lords sold their estates; others never returned at all. Those who did return brought new ideas, new customs and new products to trade. As trade increased, so too did the number of towns. Over time, many of these towns grew into cities. By 1200, there were about 600 cities in Europe, three times as many as there had been 50 years earlier. Because of this rapid growth, conditions in these towns and cities were often cramped and unhygienic.

Check your learning 10.3

Remember and understand

1 Explain why Marco Polo’s adventures created such interest in Europe on his return.

2 How did the discovery of new sea routes improve trade in medieval times?

Apply and analyse

3 Many medieval people took great risks in the interests of trade, even exploring unknown seas.

a Why do you think they were prepared to do this?

b Do you think that people today also take risks for the same reasons? Justify your view.

4 Give three reasons why towns and cities began popping up across Europe from about the 10th century. Which of these reasons do you think is the most important?

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10.4 Living conditions

Living conditions across Europe during the 12th century were often very harsh. A population boom in the 11th century led to a surge in the number of people living in towns and cities and competition for food and accommodation was tough.

Living conditions in towns

People living in medieval towns and cities included both the very wealthy and the very poor. Rich people might live in castles or manor houses on the outskirts of towns, or in tall, impressive homes in the town centre.

Source 1

ae Cras well laid out within, and constructed Source 2 Part of a medieval European town, still standing today, with many beautiful houses ... Buildings were with some modern additions

improved to make them comfortable and elegant, and fine examples of all sorts of improvements were sought from outside the city.

An extract from the writings of Florence-based writer and banker Giovanni Villani (c. 1275-1348) describing his city in the early 1300s

The poor part of town

Homes for the poor in medieval towns were often just one or two rooms in one of the shabby multi-storeyed buildings clustered around a market area. Many of these buildings were joined together in a similar way to modern apartment blocks. Family businesses were typically run from the ground floor (which often had a dirt floor). Floors on upper levels were often covered with straw. Over time, this floor covering became a stinking squashed mat of rotting food, bones, bodily wastes and grease. Bathing was not seen as a daily routine in those days. In fact, some people thought that washing was bad for their health! The poor and rich alike lived with lice and fleas and scurrying rats.

Source 3 A modern artist’s impression of a medieval European town around the mid 1400s. Note the busy marketplace.

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10A How was society organised at the time of the Black Death?

The dirty streets

and other vermin.

Narrow stone or dirt streets separated the rows of what were, at first, mostly wooden buildings with thatched or shingled roofs. Such flammable materials made these buildings major fire risks.

Market activity

Medieval towns and cities were noisy, crowded places. At the centre of many towns there was a marketplace where goods were bought and sold. Festivals were also held there. One might hear animals bleating, the clatter of cart wheels, the cries of merchants as they carried out their trade, the songs and music of wandering minstrels, and the yells

of running children.

Living conditions in the country

People living in the country also faced very difficult conditions. Houses were small with dirt floors covered in straw. These houses were usually dirty, smelly and dark, and were often shared with animals such as chickens and pigs. Windows were narrow openings that could be boarded up in winter. The toilet was a hole in the ground outside.

Peasants living in the country worked long hours to produce their food, and were often undernourished. This made them susceptible to many different kinds of illnesses.

Life expectancy

Life expectancy during the 11th and 12th centuries was very low compared to today. Infant mortality (death) rates were very high, and if an infant survived, on average they could only expect to live to be about 35 years old if they were male, and about 31 years if they were female. Many women died during childbirth, whereas many more males died as children before the age of 10. Life expectancy in medieval Europe became worse from about 1300 (even before the Black Death) as a result of famine and the dirty, overcrowded living conditions in cities.

Town centres were dirty and smelly. Rotting food scraps and sewage typically blocked the drains. Each day, household rubbish and the contents of chamber pots (used for going to the toilet) were tossed out of windows. It was common to see animals such as pigs and chickens roaming the streets and alleyways. The smell of animal manure and human waste was constant, and the streets were a thriving environment for rats

Check your learning 10.4

Remember and understand

1 Why were towns and cities — especially the poorer parts — such fertile areas for the spread of the plague?

2 What was the average life expectancy for a male living in medieval Europe?

3 What was the average life expectancy for a female living in medieval Europe?

4 Why do you think the average life expectancy was lower for women than men?

Apply and analyse

5 Divisions in medieval societies helped to create living conditions in some towns and cities that were a breeding ground for disease. Think about the town or city in which your school is located. With a partner, answer the following questions:

a How are social differences reflected in the layout and appearance of your town or city?

b What health risks and social problems might be created by some areas of your town or city? Why?

c What steps have already been taken to improve this situation? Can you suggest others?

Evaluate and create

6 With a partner, draw a concept map exploring some of the hardships you think that those living in early medieval towns might have faced. Think how these hardships might have affected family life, health, lifestyle, employment and life span.

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10.5 Causes and symptoms of the Black Death

Causes of the Black Death

The Black Death was a plague pandemic that broke out in parts of Asia, Africa and Europe between the early 1330s and 1350s.

A pandemic is an infectious disease that spreads through human populations across a large region, or even worldwide, in a short period of time. This particular pandemic did not become known as the Black Death until many years later. It was given this name because of the black lumps, or buboes, that appeared on the victim’s skin.

There had been outbreaks of the plague in previous centuries, but the outbreak that occurred in the 14th century was far more deadly than previous ones. By the time it ran its course, it is estimated that more than a third of the population in Europe had died from it.

The Black Death is now believed to have been a combination of three types of plague - bubonic plague, pneumonic plague and septicemic plague. Bubonic plague is transmitted by infected fleas carried by rats. Rats were very common in the dirty, crowded conditions of medieval Europe. When the rat carrying the flea died from the plague, the flea would jump onto a person to feed from their blood. The person bitten by the flea would then be infected. Bubonic plague was the most common form of plague.

Pneumonic plague was the second most common form of plague. It attacked a person’s respiratory system and was spread through the air by a victim’s cough. It was far more contagious and deadly than the bubonic plague.

Septicemic plague was the rarest and deadliest form of the Black Death. It was also spread by infected fleas, but moves directly into the

Source 1 Medieval artist’s impression of merchants conducting their trade. It was medieval traders, many say, who were responsible for spreading the pandemic.

SAM:

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10B What were the causes of the Black Death and how did it spread?

bloodstream and becomes life threatening even before buboes have had time to form on the skin. Septicemic plague killed almost 100 per cent

of victims.

Medieval societies were significantly changed by the Black Death. Town populations were devastated, trade virtually stopped and many manor lands and businesses were ruined. Family and social relationships were also ruined, for both the rich and the poor.

Symptoms of the Black Death

For most sufferers, the first sign of the Black Death was large bulges or lumps that appeared on the skin, usually in the groin, in the armpits or on the neck. These lumps were known as buboes, and initially appeared as a red colour, before turning purple, and then finally black. These buboes would spread all over the body. The victim would also get a fever and headaches. Over the next few days, the victim would lose motor control, so that they could not speak or walk properly. They would suffer much pain and vomiting, and become delirious.

The average time of death from the first symptom was between three and seven days. It is believed that between 50 and 75 per cent of those who caught the disease died.

Source 2 This detail, called ‘Suffering man’, from a painting by Matthias Grünewald (c. 1480-1528) provides evidence of why this terrible disease caused such fear and horror.

a

d

Source 3 Yersinia pestis bacteria — the bacteria that lived in the stomach of fleas and that caused the bubonic plague

Source 4 The black rat helped spread the bubonic plague throughout medieval Asia, Africa and Europe.

Check your learning 10.5

Remember and understand

1 What is a pandemic?

2 What were the three types of plague that became known as the Black Death?

3 Why did the disease become known as the Black Death?

Evaluate and create

4 Conduct some research into the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Find out: a who discovered it as the real cause of the Black Death, and when b who discovered the first effective treatment for the Black Death, and when. Write a short report to show your findings.

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10.6 The spread of the

Black Death

From around 1330 to 1351, the Black Death swept through Asia, Europe, north Africa and the Middle East, killing an estimated 100 million people.

Origins of the Black Death

Most scientists and historians believe that an especially lethal strain of the plague broke out in China in the early 1330s, following a devastating famine. This area was then known as the Yuan Empire (covering most of present-day China and Mongolia), which had been under Mongol rule since 1279. Some think that the disease was first carried westwards by Mongols travelling along the Silk Road.

In 1346, the pandemic eventually reached a trading city on the Black Sea called Kaffa that was controlled by Genoan (Italian) merchants (see

ORIGINS AND SPREAD OF THE BLACK DEATH

Source 1). At that time, Muslim Turks (called Tatars) were attacking Kaffa. The attacking forces of Tartars were infected with the plague. A 14th-century Italian writer, Gabriele de’ Mussi, described how the Tatars ‘ordered dead corpses [of their men] to be placed in catapults and lobbed [thrown] into the city in the hope that the intolerable stench would kill everyone inside. What seemed like mountains of dead were thrown’. The Tatar attack began to break down as the disease spread rapidly among their troops, killing all but a few. The Genoan merchants in Kaffa took the opportunity to flee to their boats.

The Genoans, however, were now also carrying the disease. On the way home, they infected those they came in contact with, including merchants in Constantinople (who, in turn, carried the plague further east). When the ships reached their home port back in Italy, crowds flocked to greet them. These survivors unknowingly introduced the disease to their homeland via their own infection and the rats on board (who jumped to land).

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Š PERSIA aow Mediterranėan Sea”

Alexandria Cairo

LEGEND LA [EE After 1350 E 1350

E 1349

E 1348

E 1347

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—— Direction and path N City with recorded

outbreak -2s d AEN

AFRICA

-2

Arabian

INDIAN OCEAN $

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3 ae Bombay 5

Sea

Source 1

Source: Oxford University Press

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10B What were the causes of the Black Death and how did it spread?

To the west of Egypt, the plague’s advance followed the north African coastline. It reached Tunis in April 1348 - most likely through trading links with Sicily. From there it pushed into today’s Algeria and Morocco. Interestingly, nomadic Arabs (who lived in tents, moving from place to place) were not struck down by the plague.

Source 2 The tower of a 14th-19th-century Genoese fortress in Kaffa : ; (modern-day Feodosiya in Ukraine) The spread into the Middle East

The Black Death spread to Yemen in the The rapid spread of the Black Death A E a his attendants and courtiers, carried the disease to their home country after their

The spread across Europe a release from a Cairo prison.

Once the Black Death had moved westwards from Asia, it Three years earlier, in April 1348, the raced through Europe (see Source 1). By the end of 1347, most plague had already reached Gaza. From Mediterranean islands were infected. Many Mediterranean there it spread to Palestine and Syria. seaports were also infected. By 1348, the Black Death was in Less than a year later, it had killed 50000 Marseilles and, then, other cities in the south of France. From people in Damascus — roughly half the there, it moved into Spain and further into Italy. population. Eventually, the whole of the Later in 1348 the plague was carried across to England by Islamic world was affected, especially sea. In 1349, the plague spread across the rest of the British Isles those living in towns or cities.

and then across the North Sea into Norway. It also continued its

spread across mainland Europe, reaching Germany. By 1350 the

plague had further spread into eastern Europe, Russia and the rest

of Scandinavia. By 1352 the plague was widespread across Europe. Check ua learning WE

The spread into Egypt and north Africa Remember and understand

1 Where was the initial outbreak of the Black Death believed to have occurred?

2 Describe the impact of the Black Death on Egypt during 1348 and 1349.

Europe was not the only area devastated by the Black Death. By 1347, it reached Alexandria in north Africa, carried by infected travellers on ships. An Arab writer described the arrival there

of a slave ship that had set out to sea from Constantinople with over 330 people on board. By the time it arrived in Alexandria,

there were only three survivors. Apply and analyse By early 1348, up to 1000 people were dying per day in 3 Write a paragraph outlining the role Alexandria. In fact, Alexandria’s population did not return to that trade and trade routes played in what it was before the plague until hundreds of years later. the rapid spread of the Black Death. In other villages of the Nile delta, the death rate was so high 4 Why do you think it is that nomadic that towns were abandoned, fishing almost stopped and law Arabs were able to escape the Black courts were closed. In the town of Bilbeis, for example, bodies Death?

were reported to be piled up in mosques and shops. Roads were

littered with rotting corpses, which were eaten by dogs and rats. The southward spread of the plague from Alexandria saw it 5 Create a timeline that lists key events in

travel up the Nile Valley (again, mostly through infected boat the spread of the pandemic from east

passengers). About 200000 people died in Cairo alone — 37 per to west. Include key dates for Asia, the

cent of the city’s population. By February 1349, the Black Death Micele Essi, Aica ene Ke ces

had reached Aswan, 1000 kilometres south of Cairo.

Evaluate and create

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10.7 Medicine at the time of the Black Death

Today we know far more about many health conditions and diseases than medieval people

did. Those suffering from the Black Death in the

14th century had no idea why they were dying. They knew nothing about germs or bacteria. The cause — the bacterium Yersinia pestis (see Source 3 on page 279) — was not discovered until the late 1800s.

Beliefs about the causes of the Black Death

When the Black Death broke out, some people looked to the skies for answers. In medieval times, astronomical events to do with the planets, the Sun and the Moon were often believed to trigger events on Earth. One such event occurred on 20 March 1345, when the planets of Jupiter, Saturn and Mars were aligned closely in the night sky. This unusual event was considered by certain people to have caused a toxic cloud to form over India. As this cloud drifted on, it was said to infect people below with the plague. At this time, bad smells were also commonly considered to be the cause of disease. To counteract

keyconcept: Evidence

Plague doctors

Plague doctors were specialist physicians hired by towns and cities to fight the Black Death, but they were not always well trained. Most could do little for victims, except separate them from people who had not yet contracted the plague and burn

their clothing. They also prayed for them.

Source 1 provides evidence of how plague physicians typically dressed. Heavy floorlength coats extended up the back of the head. They also wore a hat, and a bird-like beak, which was filled with strong-smelling items such as mint, spices, garlic, flowers or vinegar. This, it was hoped, would protect them from contracting the plague and

from coming into contact with its associated bad smells.

For more information on the key concept of evidence, refer to page 187 of

‘The history toolkit’.

Source 1 A 19th-century illustration of a typical plague doctor. Earlier medieval plague doctors were similarly dressed.

the odours, people carried small bunches of flowers or parcels filled with fragrant herbs, spices or flowers. Green wood (such as from the rosemary plant) was burned in the home to give off a fragrant smoke. People were encouraged by doctors not to sleep on their backs because it was believed that bad smells could slip too easily up their nostrils.

Medical care at the time of the Black Death

By today’s standards, medieval medical care was very primitive. There were some university-trained doctors in Europe, but only the wealthiest people

in society could afford to visit them. One of these doctors would diagnose the problem, prescribe a treatment and then possibly refer the patient to a surgeon. Poor people received medical attention from monks or nuns, or healers in their community. Often, healers were older women, respected for their knowledge of illness and herbal treatments.

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10B What were the causes of the Black Death and how did it spread?

Medical treatments

Besides taking or using herbs, one of the most common medical treatments was blood letting. Blood letting was believed to cure illness and prevent diseases such as the Black Death by removing ‘dirty’ blood. Leeches were sometimes used to suck out blood, or a person’s vein was cut and a set volume of blood was collected in a dish. Often this procedure was done in a barber’s shop — and the person who did it was the barber.

Other medical procedures included forcing a patient to vomit, or bringing on severe sweating or diarrhoea. Some doctors treated the buboes of plague victims by cutting them open to release blood. Then a mixture made from crushed dried toads and dried human faeces was spread over the open, pus-filled wound.

A N

— > a

N

N

Surgeons

MeL TTS

As discussed, there was a very limited rma siete K understanding of human anatomy across Source 2 A 15th-century illustration of

Source 3 An artist’s

medieval Europe and surgical treatments blood letting depiction of a medieval

de (see S 3). I l surgeon treating a broken were very crude (see Source 3). In general, Ba The painof euch surgeons knew very little of what lay below treatments simply had to the skin, despite the fact that some were be endured.

university educated. Medieval operating tools included saws, Check your learning 10.7

knives, not irons and sharp meanen for Remember and understand blood letting. None of these were sterilised,

and operations were often carried outin 1 Medieval people did not know what caused the plague, but

the open - even major procedures such as they did have some ideas. Describe two possible explanations

amputations. The success rates for major put forward.

surgery were, unsurprisingly, very low. 2 Who might the very wealthy go to see about a medical Anaesthetics did not exist in medieval condition? Who might the very poor go to see? Why?

Europe, so the pain of surgery or other 3 What types of tools did medieval surgeons use?

treatment had to be endured. Poor people Apply and analyse

might be given a piece of wood to bite

on. More wealthy people were sometimes given a sedating drug like alcohol mixed with opium. Another sedative called ‘dwale was often used but it was deadly if given Evaluate and create in the wrong amounts. Besides opium and dwale, lettuce juice, vinegar and the bile of a castrated wild pig were also used to relieve the pain of surgery.

4 Describe two different methods used by medieval surgeons to control pain during surgery. How effective do you think each , might have been?

5 Design and make a mask that meets the requirements of a medieval plague doctor. Share your creations with the class, explaining how you made them.

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10.8 Seeking a Cause or cure

Nobody in medieval times understood the real cause of the Black Death, but this did not stop them looking for reasons why this terrible disease was devastating their world. Many thought that it was

a punishment sent from God for their sins. These people became more and more concerned with seeking religious salvation by confessing their sins and praying for forgiveness. Others started looking for someone to blame.

Those seeking a cause

Persecution of the Jews

Societies in medieval Europe were dominated by Christian beliefs, so the Jews formed only a small minority of the population. Despite their small numbers, they were often looked down upon because of the Christian belief that Jewish people were responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. With the spread of the Black Death, many people were looking for someone to blame for their suffering, and the Jews were a common target.

Source 1 A procession of flagellants, painted by the Spanish artist Goya between 1815 and 1819

Massacres of Jews began in the spring and summer of 1348, starting in France. Persecution grew more intense after a Jewish doctor in Switzerland confessed to poisoning the drinking water, thus causing the Black Death. However, he was tortured to obtain his ‘confession’. That month all Jews in the town of Basel (in today’s Switzerland) were rounded up and burned alive.

Jewish persecution began in Germany in November 1348 and continued for the next nine months. Some Jews managed to escape to Poland where they were offered protection by King Casimir III. Many then moved on to Russia where large Jewish communities were established.

The flagellants

The flagellants were groups of radical Christians who roamed through Europe, wearing red crosses on their clothing. Organised in groups of up to

300 people led by a master, flagellants would walk into towns and villages and form a circle to conduct their flagellation rituals. They were known as flagellants because they would flagellate, or whip, themselves believing that this would help them gain God’s forgiveness for their sins.

Each person carried a heavy whip tipped with metal studs. After forming a circle, they would strip off the top half of their clothing and the master would walk around, whipping them. Then, they would whip themselves until they drew blood. As they did this, they would cry out to God to forgive them for their sins and to stop the Black Death.

The flagellants also believed that Jewish people were responsible for the Black Death, and encouraged attacks on the Jewish populations in the towns they visited.

The sinners

Some people in medieval Europe became so depressed and disillusioned by what was happening during the Black Death that they gave up caring about religion entirely.

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10C What were the effects of the Black Death?

Source 2 A section of a medieval painting called ; Danse Macabre (or Dance of Death) Without the strict moral guidance and teaching of the

Church, some people began to show wild and careless behaviour. Spending all day drinking, laughing, singing and dancing took people’s minds off their fear, and eased some of their pain. This mix of emotions (fear and celebration) is well captured in medieval artworks such as the Danse Macabre, or

Dance of Death (see Source 2). Check your learning 10.8

Those seeking a cure Remember and understand 1 Describe the rituals that the flagellants The effect on medicine and public health would perform when they entered

towns and villages.

2 Why and how did Jewish people get persecuted during the time of the Black Death?

The failure of medieval medicine to cure or prevent the spread of the Black Death led to changes in medical practices immediately following the plague. Frustrated with diagnoses and treatments that revolved around astrology and superstition, doctors and scholars began focusing more on clinical medicine and seeking Apply and analyse to increase their knowledge of the physical world. This approach led to an increase in autopsies and dissections of human corpses in a desire to learn more about anatomy. This in turn led to a greater understanding of the workings of the human body and new medical texts and treatments. Hospitals developed into

3 Analyse Source 2. What evidence does the detail from this painting reveal about how medieval people were thinking at the time of the plague?

places of treatment rather than being places where the sick were Evaluate and create

sent to die. 4 Write or compose a chant or song that After the plague had passed, some towns and villages slowly might have been suitable for flagellants

began to set up local health boards to develop and enforce to call out as they walked around

sanitation procedures. These remained very simple but included whipping themselves.

such moves as regulations to restrict the dumping of waste and the employment of street sweepers.

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10.9 Short-term impacts of the Black Death

Many of the immediate impacts of the Black Death on society were the result of death on a massive scale. People from all walks of life, all trades and professions were affected, as were all types of families.

Depopulation

It is difficult to give an exact figure for the number of people who died from the Black Death. Many medieval authors made claims about the number of deaths that occurred in particular areas, but these sources have proven unreliable. Church records also provide us with details about births and deaths in their particular region, but these records also contain many gaps and inaccuracies, and are therefore also unreliable. Many of the primary sources that exist do not distinguish between deaths caused by the Black Death and deaths that occurred because of other factors, such as old age or other diseases.

The effects of the Black Death on Eastern societies are not understood as well as they are in Europe. It is believed that in China alone the population dropped from 125 million to 90 million. It is known that

the plague spread into other regions of Asia besides China, including the Khmer region and India. A writer from the period is reported as saying: ‘India was depopulated; Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies; the Kurds fled in vain to the mountains. In Caramaria and Caesaria [in modern-day Turkey] none were left alive.’

The most recent estimates suggest the following approximate number of deaths as a result of the Black Death:

33 to 40 per cent of the population of Europe,

with higher rates of death in rural areas

35 million people in China

one-third of populations in the Middle East e 40 per cent of Egypt’s population.

The effect on towns

Rubbish and raw sewage in the streets of medieval towns was a common sight, even before the plague, but once the plague struck, this filthy situation became even worse. Abandoned houses were left dirty and untended, and muck in the streets piled up. There were few people to tend to the disrepair, even if they had wanted to. Tradesmen and craftsmen died along with cleaners, magistrates and officials.

Impact on religion

Many monks, nuns and priests died as a result of the Black Death. Some others in the general population saw this as proof that the lifestyles of these religious people had displeased God. A few religious centres, such as monasteries, were accused of improper conduct and greed, rather than being places devoted to God. Some priests

Source 1 An illustration from the Toggenburg Bible (1411) showing a couple covered in buboes, symptoms of the Black Death

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and other religious figures fled, abandoning their parishioners because they feared becoming infected. Those who replaced them were often poorly trained. Some did not even live in the parishes they were meant to oversee. This added to the disappointment and anger of many ordinary people toward the Church and weakened its position in society.

Burial of the dead

People were dying so quickly, and in such large numbers, that there was no time for proper burials or religious ceremonies. In fact, some Christian priests began refusing to bury victims for fear of contracting the disease. Mass burials became common, with

corpses shovelled into large pits and covered with earth.

keyconcept: Evidence

The Decameron

One of the most significant primary sources of evidence for an insight into how the Black Death affected societies in Europe is The Decameron. It was written by Giovanni Boccaccio in the 1850s. Although it was written as entertainment (it consists of a number of lively stories told by young people who flee Florence to escape the plague), it provides key information about life in plagueaffected communities.

Source 3

Some thought that moderate living and the avoidance of all superfluity [excesses] would preserve them from the epidemic ... they shut themselves up in houses where there were no sick, eating the finest food and drinking the best wine very temperately [moderately], avoiding all excess, allowing no news or discussion of death and sickness ... others thought just the opposite. They thought the sure cure for the plague was to drink

10C What were the effects of the Black Death?

meN

< exe oe hee Source 2 This medieval painting shows nuns caring for the sick at the Hdtel-Dieu (Hospital of God) in Paris. Many nuns and monks contracted the plague by helping others.

and be merry, to go about singing and amusing themselves, satisfying every appetite they could, laughing and jesting [joking] ...

Many others adopted a course of life midway ... they did not shut themselves up, but went about, carrying flowers or scented herbs or perfumes in their hands, in the belief that it was an excellent thing to comfort the brain with such odours; for the whole air was infected with the smell of dead bodies, of sick persons and medicines.

... brother abandoned brother, and the uncle his nephew, and the sister her brother, and very often the wife her husband. What is even worse and nearly incredible is that fathers and mothers refused to see and tend their children.

A translated extract from The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375)

For more information on the key concept of evidence, refer to page 187 of ‘The history toolkit’.

Check your learning 10.9

Remember and understand

1 Why is it so difficult to give an exact figure for the number of deaths resulting from the Black Death?

2 Explain how the plague led to a loss of confidence in the Church for some medieval Christians.

Evaluate and create

3 Carefully read Source 3. In dot points, summarise some of the major effects of the Black Death on people’s lives in plague-affected communities as described in this source.

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Oack Death caused a huge labour shortage in towns and on the farms. Many feudal manors were largely deserted, either because workers had died or run away.

Source 1 A modern artist’s impression of the impact of the plague on a medieval town

The plague caused some people to question their beliefs. Many priests died too, causing some to think that the Church was = powerless to stop this terrible epidemic.

290 oxfordibig ideas humanities and social sciences 8 westétn-aus ra

There were so many dead bodies (in the streets and houses), they had to be buried in mass pits. Bodies were collected and put on carts that travelled the streets.

Check your learning 10.10 Plague doctors wore full-body cloaks,

and masks with long beaks filled with

Remember and understand sweet-smelling substances. Sick female pimss i , PAR patients began to allow male doctors to F 1 Using Source 1, identity five short- examine all parts of their bodies, which

term impacts of the Black Death that was not common before. have hit this medieval town. E ee TY

Believing the plague was God’s punishment for wrongdoing, people known as flagellants began walking the streets whipping themselves in a bid to repent for their sins and ask forgiveness from God.

; ; ERAEN A EE EA | Doctors suggested unusual cures, such as telling people to sniff herbs or lemon leaves, or even their own faeces.

_ Sometimes leeches were attached to the skin to remove

catching the disease; some ran away. Many victims were abandoned even by their own

People did not know then about the health dangers associated with mice and rats, nor did they know kS that disease could be transferred by j coughing and sneezing.

10.11 Long-term impacts of the

Black Death

It is often only with the passage of time that the long-term impacts of devastating events become clear, and the Black Death was no exception. The Black Death reduced the populations of towns, villages, cities and manors dramatically. In some cases the populations of whole towns were wiped out, leaving the countryside empty. Europe would not recover until the 1500s.

Weakening of feudalism

The massive drop in population drastically affected trade, manufacturing, and the production of food from the land. Skilled labourers and craftsmen were now in short supply. Survivors who had been trained in different trades were highly valued by employers. They had more bargaining power and, hence, more social status.

In time, this situation helped to break down the already weakened system of feudalism. Instead of providing their labour free in return for a lord’s protection and support, knights and manor workers could now demand money for their services. In towns, workers could demand higher wages.

The wealth available to survivors of the Black Death is believed to have been at least five times more than it was before the plague struck. Spending increased in towns and cities, increasing the power and social position of surviving members of the middle class. Prices also began to increase in some areas.

Peasant unrest

Concerned by the increase in wages being demanded (and paid), some rulers tried to introduce new laws to keep wages low. They also tried to stop the rising cost of food, then being forced up by black market trading and piracy.

In England, the Statute of Labourers was introduced in 1351. This law made it illegal for employers to increase workers’ wages to attract new

keyconcept: Cause and effect

The Peasants’ Revolt

The Peasants’ Revolt took place in England in 1381. This revolt, which involved separate but related uprisings by peasants, eventually led to the end of feudalism in England.

The lower classes under feudalism were often badly treated. They lived in complete poverty and were enslaved to their lords. Despite their poverty, peasants in England at this time were required to pay taxes to support the king.

By then, the Black Death had severely reduced the population of England, but the king passed a law to ensure that workers could not ask for better employment terms (Such as higher wages). When some peasants refused to pay these taxes, they were fined or put in the stocks as punishment. But the discontent was felt in many places, and an uprising swelled across England. The leader of the revolt, Wat Tyler, was eventually killed by the mayor of London.

Although the demands for better working and living conditions were not immediately met, the upper classes realised that they could not rule over the peasants in the same ways they had in the past. They also realised that large groups of workers could be a significant political force to reckon with.

For more information on the key concept of cause and effect, refer to page 186 of ‘The history toolkit’.

Source 1 An illustration of Wat Tyler being killed during the Peasants’ Revolt

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Source 2 A detail from the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican City in Rome, painted by Michelangelo (1475-1564)

— one of the more significant works of art from Renaissance Europe

workers. It also made it illegal for workers to travel

to other areas for better wages. This law upset many peasant workers. Indeed, it created some of the unrest that led to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.

Weakening of the Church

The inability of religious leaders to limit the terrible effects of the plague, as well as the deaths of so many monks, nuns and priests, led to a lessening of many peoples’s faith in the Church. In the aftermath of the Black Death, people began to question the influence and power that the Church had over society and to openly criticise some of its practices.

In time this would lead to a strengthening of power of the state over the Church and to movements such as the Reformation that would see the establishment of alternative Christian faiths.

Foundations of the Renaissance

After the Black Death had passed, many wealthy survivors in Europe chose to invest in art or literature as a means of expressing their gratitude for being left alive. Some became patrons. They funded talented individuals to create paintings, build churches and other public buildings, and to write literature. Some encouraged scientific research, hoping that answers might one day be found to what caused the Black Death. These developments added to the cultural rebirth in Europe at the time. This would later become known as the Renaissance (which means ‘rebirth’ in French).

10C What were the effects of the Black Death?

The start of the slave trade

One long-term effect on African society was the start of the slave trade. The first Africans brought

to Europe as slaves were captured by Portuguese captains Antão Gonçalves and Nuno Tristão in Cabo Branco (modern Mauritania) in 1441. From this point the Portuguese established a steady trade in African slaves. Just over 10 years later, the Spanish also entered the slave trade. Initially established to provide labour in Europe, as European nations began to establish colonies from the 16th century onwards the slave trade increased as labour was needed in these new lands. Africans from the Sahara region began to be taken as slaves in the 14th century, at first to boost Europe’s greatly reduced labour force.

Check your learning 10.11

Remember and understand

1 The Statute of Labourers was introduced in 1351.

a How did it change conditions for workers in England?

b What did this law have to do with the plague?

2 How did some survivors of the plague help the spread of Renaissance thinking in Europe?

3 How can the plague be seen as a factor that led to the start of the African slave trade?

Apply and analyse

4 What evidence is there to suggest that the plague had a devastating effect on the population of India at the time?

Evaluate and create

5 Write an essay of 500 words explaining what you believe was the most important change in the society of medieval Europe as a result of the repeated outbursts of the 14th-century plague.

6 In small groups, role-play for the class an interchange between survivors of the Black Death and either their former lord of the manor or their former employer in a medieval town. Your conversation will focus on how things have changed (for both parties concerned) and will reflect the values and knowledge of the times.

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