Paper 1, Prescribed Subject 2: Conquest and its Impact The conquest of Mexico
Aztec weapons and tactics: The Mexica military relied on weapons such as the macuahuitl (wooden clubs with edges embedded with obsidian blades), spears, atlatls (spear-throwers), bows, and shields. They lacked gunpowder weapons, horses, and metal armor. Their tactics emphasized capturing enemies alive for ritual sacrifice, rather than killing them outright. Warfare was closely tied to religion, status, and honor, with warriors seeking prestige through taking captives. In the context of the conquest, these tactics were less effective against Spanish armor and cavalry.
Chinampas: Highly productive, man-made agricultural plots constructed on shallow lake beds in the Valley of Mexico, especially around Lake Texcoco. Chinampas allowed for intensive year-round farming, supporting the large urban population of Tenochtitlan. Their efficiency helped sustain the Mexica Empire’s economic strength and contributed to urban centralization and social hierarchy.
Cholula: A major religious and political city allied with the Mexica and home to an important temple complex. In 1519, Cortés ordered a massacre in Cholula after claiming he had learned of a planned ambush. Spanish sources portray the event as a preemptive act of self-defense, while Indigenous accounts depict it as an unprovoked act of terror. The massacre intimidated surrounding city-states and demonstrated Spanish military power.
Codices: Pictorial manuscripts created by Indigenous scribes and/or Spaniards. They were made both before and after the Spanish conquest, often using images and symbols to record history, tribute, warfare, and religious practices. Post-conquest codices, such as the Florentine Codex, were frequently produced under Spanish supervision but preserve Indigenous perspectives. Some of them were created with/by Aztecs but others were made by non-Aztecs. Codices are vital primary sources that provide the closest thing we have to non-European viewpoints on events such as the arrival of the Spaniards, Montezuma’s rule, and the fall of Tenochtitlan.
Cuauhtemoc: The last tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlan, who assumed leadership in 1520 following the death of Montezuma II and his successor, Cuitláhuac. Cuauhtémoc led the Mexica resistance during the final siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521, organizing defenses despite famine, disease, and overwhelming enemy forces. After his capture, he was tortured by the Spaniards and later executed in 1525.
Disease: Diseases such as smallpox, introduced by the Spaniards, devastated Indigenous populations who lacked immunity. A major smallpox outbreak in 1520–1521 killed large numbers of Mexica, including the emperor Cuitláhuac, and weakened resistance during the siege of Tenochtitlan. Disease disrupted leadership, food production, and military organization. The scholarly consensus today is that disease was the leading factor in the downfall of the Mexica. That is because the sheer number of indigenous people who died is so high that it made it hard for their societies to function. However, there are a number of other factors which one can argue contributed to their collapse.
Flower Wars: Ritualized, pre-arranged warfare conducted mainly between the Mexica and neighboring city-states such as Tlaxcala. The Flower Wars served multiple political and religious functions: securing captives for sacrificial ceremonies, reinforcing warrior prestige (bringing back captives could increase one’s rank), and maintaining political pressure on independent polities. Their existence highlights divisions among Indigenous groups, which became critical during the Spanish invasion as longtime enemies of the Mexica, such as the Tlaxcalans, formed alliances with Cortés.
Hernán Cortés: (1485–1547) was a Spanish conquistador from Extremadura, a region that produced many prominent conquerors. Born into a minor noble family, he held administrative roles in Hispaniola and later participated in the conquest of Cuba, gaining experience in colonial governance, military leadership, and the encomienda system. His ambition and political skill shaped his decision to lead the 1519–1521 expedition resulting in the fall of the Mexica Empire. Cortés is central to the narrative of conquest because of his strategic alliances with Indigenous enemies of the Mexica, use of advanced weaponry and horses, manipulation of political instability within Tenochtitlan, and reliance on cultural intermediaries, especially Malinche. Cortés’s capture of Montezuma II, the retreat during La Noche Triste, and the eventual siege of Tenochtitlan marked turning points in the campaign. In primary sources such as his Letters to Charles V, Cortés portrays the conquest as justified and divinely sanctioned. While historians researching his life suggest he was likely motivated by a desire to increase his station in Spanish society.
Hugh Thomas: Author of Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. The book is a very long day-by-day summary of the conquest of the Aztec. It is centered on Cortes and Montezuma, humanizing them and giving a window into their thought process. It was written to be a popular history, something to be read by a general audience. Therefore, Thomas takes some liberties regarding the inner thoughts and motives of the two men in order to weave a more compelling narrative.
Human sacrifice: Human sacrifice was central to Mexica religion and cosmology, believed necessary to sustain the gods and maintain cosmic order. In particular, the patron god of Tenoctitlan, Huitzilopochtli. Captives taken in warfare were often sacrificed during major religious ceremonies. Spanish sources used human sacrifice to portray the Mexica as barbaric and to justify conquest and forced conversion. Rivals of the Mexica were also impacted by human sacrifice as it was a reason why the Mexica captured their citizens and warriors. There is scholarly debate around the degree to which the scope of this human sacrifice led to the Mexica’s own downfall.
Jared Diamond: Jared Diamond is a historian known for his book Guns, Germs, and Steel (1997), which explains why some societies conquered others. He argues that environmental and geographical factors gave Europeans advantages over indigenous peoples in the Americas. For example, the lack of domesticable animals in the Americas led the indigenous to lack immunity to diseases, thus making them easier to conquer. In the context of the conquest of Mexico and Peru, Diamond emphasizes that Spanish victory was not just due to individual skill or culture, but to technology, disease, and geography. His work can be classified as an example of geographic determinism (he calls it “geographic luck”). His work shifted historiography by focusing on broad structural and environmental causes rather than purely on political or cultural explanations. While influential, some historians criticize him for downplaying human agency and the complexity of indigenous societies.
La Malinche: Also known as Doña Marina or Malintzin. She was an enslaved Indigenous woman given to the Spaniards early in the expedition. She became Cortés’s key linguistic and cultural intermediary. Speaking Nahuatl and Maya, and later learning Spanish, she enabled communication between Spaniards and multiple Indigenous groups. Malinche also advised Cortés on political dynamics within the region and helped negotiate alliances; her presence appears in both Spanish chronicles and Indigenous codices. She had children with Cortes and eventually converted to Catholicism. Her legacy in the historical record has been mixed. In some accounts, she is remembered as a traitor to the Indigenous people. In other narratives she is recast as a victim or a woman who tried to do the best under the circumstances.
Mexica (Aztec): The Mexica were the dominant Indigenous people of central Mexico and the leading power in the Triple Alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan. From their capital, Tenochtitlan, they built an expansive empire through conquest, tribute extraction, and strategic warfare. Their society was highly structured, with a powerful ruling elite, a warrior culture tied to social status, and a complex religious system centered on maintaining cosmic balance through ritual, including human sacrifice.
Politically, the Mexica ruled indirectly over conquered city-states, allowing local rulers to remain in power as long as tribute and military support were provided. This system created wealth and stability for the imperial core but also generated resentment among tributary states, many of which later supported the Spaniards. Militarily, Mexica warfare emphasized capturing prisoners rather than killing enemies, reflecting religious priorities rather than total destruction of opposing forces.
During the Spanish invasion (1519–1521), the Mexica initially responded through diplomacy and ritual hospitality, particularly under Montezuma II, before shifting to armed resistance. Spanish accounts often portray the Mexica as superstitious and passive, while Indigenous sources, such as codices and oral histories, reveal a society actively attempting to interpret and respond to unprecedented threats. The Mexica were severely weakened by internal divisions, siege warfare, and European diseases, especially smallpox.
Montezuma II: The tlatoani (ruler) of the Mexica Empire from 1502 to 1520. He was the ruler during the arrival of the Spaniards. He served as a high-ranking military commander and priest, roles that reinforced his prestige and his reputation as a deeply religious leader who upheld the empire’s ritual obligations, especially those relating to warfare and sacrifice.Under Montezuma II, the Mexica Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, but his rule also saw growing tensions. His policies increased tribute demands and centralized authority around the imperial court, creating unrest among subject peoples such as the Tlaxcalans, Huexotzincas, and other polities resentful of Mexica domination. These internal strains became a crucial factor during the Spanish invasion.
During the encounter with Cortés, Montezuma’s decisions, such as the ceremonial welcome of the Spaniards and his subsequent detention, have been heavily debated. Spanish accounts often portray him as fearful or indecisive, whereas Indigenous codices show a more complex political and religious rationale. Cortés placed Montezuma under house arrest, an event described very differently in Spanish and Indigenous accounts. During the uprising of 1520, Montezuma was killed. His death symbolized the collapse of imperial leadership and contributed to the Mexica’s temporary military resurgence before their eventual defeat.
Noche Triste: La Noche Triste refers to the night of 30 June–1 July 1520, when Spanish forces led by Hernán Cortés and their Indigenous allies were forced to flee Tenochtitlan after a major Mexica uprising. The revolt had been triggered by several factors, most notably the massacre of Mexica nobles during the Festival of Toxcatl ordered by Pedro de Alvarado, the imprisonment of Montezuma II, and growing resentment toward Spanish occupation and demands.
As the Spaniards attempted to escape the island city under cover of darkness, they were attacked along the causeways by Mexica warriors. Laden with stolen gold, many Spaniards drowned in the canals, while others were killed in close combat. Spanish sources describe the event as a tragic but heroic retreat, emphasizing loss and suffering; Indigenous accounts portray it as a major victory and act of resistance against foreign invaders.
Although La Noche Triste was a severe setback for Cortés, it was not a decisive Mexica victory. The Spaniards regrouped in Tlaxcala, rebuilt their forces, and returned in 1521 with a larger coalition and siege strategy.
Pedro de Alvarado: A Spanish conquistador and close lieutenant of Cortés, known for his brutality and impulsiveness. During Cortés’s absence from Tenochtitlan in 1520, Alvarado ordered a massacre of Mexica nobles during the Festival of Toxcatl, claiming fear of rebellion. This act triggered widespread uprising and contributed directly to La Noche Triste, when the Spaniards were forced to flee the city.
Spanish weapons and tactics: Spanish forces used steel swords, crossbows, arquebuses (primitive muskets), cannons, and cavalry, which had significant psychological and tactical advantages. Horses were especially terrifying to Indigenous forces unfamiliar with mounted warfare. Spanish tactics prioritized killing enemy forces, breaking morale, and capturing strategic locations. The Spaniards also adapted to local conditions, relying heavily on Indigenous allies for manpower, logistics, and intelligence.
Tabasco: A region in southeastern Mexico where Cortés fought the Battle of Centla in 1519, one of the earliest armed encounters between Spaniards and Indigenous forces. After their defeat, local leaders presented Cortés with gifts, including the enslaved woman Malinche (Doña Marina). Tabasco is significant because it marked the Spaniards’ first major victory on the mainland and provided Cortés with crucial interpreters.
Tenochtitlan: Capital city of the Mexica Empire, founded on an island in Lake Texcoco and connected by causeways, aqueducts, and canals. Spanish writers described it as one of the largest and most sophisticated cities they had ever seen. The city’s layout, temples, marketplaces, and infrastructure reveal the complexity of Mexica urban planning and societal organization. Tenochtitlan became the focal point of the conquest: Cortés’s initial entry, the La Noche Triste retreat, the devastating siege of 1521, and the eventual destruction and rebuilding as Mexico City.
Tlaxcala: An independent Indigenous confederation in central Mexico and a long-standing enemy of the Mexica (Aztec). The Tlaxcala had resisted incorporation into the Mexica Empire and had been subjected to repeated Flower Wars, which deepened hostility toward Tenochtitlan. After initially fighting Cortés’s forces in 1519, the Tlaxcalans chose to ally with the Spaniards, seeing them as a means to weaken or destroy Mexica dominance. Tlaxcalan warriors provided the majority of manpower (many thousands of soldiers) for the Spanish campaign, including the siege of Tenochtitlan. The role of the Tlaxcala provides critical evidence that the conquest was not a purely Spanish victory but relied heavily on Indigenous alliances, challenging Eurocentric narratives.
Veracruz: The coastal settlement founded by Cortés in 1519, shortly after his arrival in Mexico. Veracruz served as Cortés’s political and legal base, allowing him to establish a town council that pledged loyalty directly to the Spanish Crown rather than to the Cuban governor Diego Velázquez. This maneuver legitimized his expedition and protected him from accusations of insubordination. Strategically, Veracruz functioned as a supply and communication hub between Mexico and Spain. It was from Veracruz that Cortes dispatched the first of a series of letters to the king explaining the rationale for his campaign and summarizing what he had accomplished so far.