carbochem
HANDOUT No.3. Carbohydrates
CARBOHYDRATES
-are present in humans, animal tissues, plants and in micro-organisms.
CARBOHYDRATES
-present in tissue fluids, blood, milk, secretions and excretions of animals.
CARBOHYDRATES
-is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, a polyhydroxy ketone, or a compound that
yields polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon hydrolysis.
Carbohydrate glucose
-polyhydroxy aldehyde
Carbohydrate fructose is a
-polyhydroxy ketone.
3(Tri) 4(Tetra) 5(Penta)
-3,4, & 5 prefixes
6(Hexa) 7(Hepta) 8(Octa) 9(Nona)
-6,7,8, & 9 prefixes
Aldehyde
-contain “CHO” in the first carbon
Ketone
-if the second carbon has double bond “=“
Carbon
-Count the (___) then use prefixes.
“Ose”
-add the term “(___)” whichever means carbohydrates
Type o
-universal giver
Type AB
-universal receiver
Monosaccharides
-contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit (saccharo is Greek for
"sugar") (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Polysaccharides
-contain very long chains of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharide units, which may be either in straight or branched chains (e.g., cellulose, glycogen, starch).
Disaccharides
-consist of two monosaccharide units linked together by a covalent bond (e.g., sucrose).
Oligosaccharides
-contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units (e.g., raffinose).
Polysaccharides
-contain very long chains of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharide units, which may be either in straight or branched chains (e.g., cellulose, glycogen, starch).
Fructose
-73% sweeter than sucrose
Monosaccharides
-solids at room temperature a
Monosaccharides
-extremely soluble in water:
1 g/ 1 ml H2O
-Glucose can dissolve in minute amounts of water to make a syrup (___)
Glyceraldehyde
- simple sugar containing three carbon atoms and a aldehyde group
Trioses
-Simple sugars containing three carbon atoms are referred as (___)
Aldotriose
-systematic name for glyceraldehyde is (___)
Ketotriose
-simple sugar with three carbon atoms and a keto group is called as (___)
Glucose
-The most abundant organic compound monosaccharide found in nature.
Glucose
-We can find (___) in varies fruits, honey and even in starch and cane sugar.
Galactose
-monosaccharide produced in many organisms, especially mammals.
Galactose
-known as the brain sugar. It supports the brain development of infants as it helps trigger long-term memory formation.
Galactose
-combined with glucose to form the disaccharide lactose.
Fructose
-abundantly present in honey and corn syrup. Generally, fructose bonds with glucose to form a disaccharide we know as sucrose.
Fructose
-simple ketonic monosaccharide. Mostly find in plants and their fruits, flowers and root vegetables, hence earning it a moniker of fruit sugar.
Disaccharides
-consist of two monosaccharide units held together by glycosidic bond. So, they are glycosides.
Disaccharides
-most common (___) are maltose, lactose and sucrose.
Maltose (Malt Sugar)
-Glucose + Glucose
Maltose
-It may be formed during the hydrolysis of starch.
Lactose
-Glucose + Galactose Milk Sugar
Lactose
-synthesized in mammary gland and hence it occurs in milk.
Sucrose
-Glucose and Fructose “Table Sugar”
Sucrose
-Ripe fruit juices like pineapple, sugar cane, juice and honey are rich sources for (___). It also occurs in juices of sugar beets, carrot roots and sorghum.
Isomaltose
-It contains two glucose units. Glycosidic linkage is a(1→6).
Cellobiose
-It also contains two glucose units but they are joined in B(1→4)
linkage. It is formed from cellulose.
Trehalose
-It also contains two glucose units. The glycosidic linkage is a (1 →1).
So, it is a non-reducing.
Oligosaccharides
-consist of 3-10 monosaccharide units and this monosaccharides are joined together by glycoside bonds.
Most important oligosaccharides are disaccharides.
Oligosaccharides
-are generally considered safe but can cause bloating, cramping, gas, or diarrhea in some people.
a-galactosidase
-Humans lack the ability to properly digest these carbohydrates because we lack the digestive enzyme (___)
Oligosaccharides
-play a role as prebiotics by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria, which can stimulate the production of mucus by goblet cells, specialized cells found in the intestinal tract
Fructooligosaccharides
-are oligosaccharides that occur naturally in plants such as onion, chicory, garlic, asparagus, banana, artichoke, among many others.
Polysaccharides
-contain more than ten monosaccharide units (hundreds or thousands ). The monosaccharides are joined together by glycosidic linkage.
Homo-polysaccharides and Hetero-polysaccharides.
-Polysaccharides are classified on the basis of the type of monosaccharide present. The two classes of polysaccharides are (___) and (___).
Homopolysaccharides.
-they are entirely made up of one type of monosaccharides. On hydrolysis, they yield only one kind of monosaccharide.
Heteropolysaccharides
-they are made up of more than one type of monosaccharides. On hydrolysis they yield more than one type of monosaccharides.
Homoglycans
-Important homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, dextran and inulin and chitin. All these contain glucose as repeating unit. Other name for homopolysaccharides are
Starch
-It consists of two parts. A minor amylose component and a major amylopectin component.
Starch
-It is the major polysaccharide present in our food.
Starch
-It is also called as storage polysaccharide because it serves as reserve food material in plants. And present in food grains, tubers and roots like rice, wheat, potato and vegetables.
Glycogen
-similar to that of amylopectin of starch. However, the number of branches in (___) molecule is much more than amylopectin as there is one branch point for 6-7 glucose residues.
Glycogen
-It is the major storage polysaccharide (carbohydrate) in human body. And storage of Glucose
Glycogen
-It is mainly present in liver and muscle.
Glycogen
-It is also called as animal starch.
Cellulose
-It has linear chain of glucose residues and the carbohydrates of Glucose. It occurs as bundle of fibers in nature.
Cellulose
-It is the most abundant polysaccharide in nature. It is found in fibrous parts of plants like wood, cotton and straw.
Dextran
-It has structure similar to amylopectin. It is polysaccharide present in bacteria.
Dextran
-to maintain plasma volume (___) is used in clinical medicine.
Inulin
-It is a polysaccharide composed of fructose. b(1->2) glycosidic linkage is present between fructose units.
Inulin
-It is present in tubers of chicory, dahlia and in the bulb of onion and garlic.
Inulin
-used to determine glomerular filtration of kidney.
* to help measure kidney function by determining the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal (kidney) glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule per unit time.
Chitin
-A polysaccharide composed of N-acetyl glucosamine. Glycosidic linkage is b(1->4).
Chitin
-It is an important structural polysaccharide of invertebrates like crabs, lobster and insects.
Heteropolysaccharides
-they are also called as mucopolysaccharides and glycosaminoglycans.
Mucopolysaccharides
-consist of repeating disaccharide units. The disaccharide consists of two types monosaccharides. And are component of connective tissue. Hence, they are often referred as structural polysaccharides.
Mucopolysaccharides
-combines with proteins like collagen and elastin and forms extracellular medium or ground substance of connective tissue. Also components of extracellular matrix of bone, cartilage and tendons. The complex of mucopolysaccharide and protein is called as proteoglycan.
Mucopolysaccharides
-function as lubricants and shock absorbers.
Hyaluronic Acid (HA)
-The repeating disaccharide and consist of glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine.
Hyaluronic Acid (HA)
-It is present in synovial fluid and function as lubricant.
Hyaluronic Acid (HA)
-It is also present in skin, loose connective tissue, umbilical cord and ovum. It is present in vitreous body of eye.
Dermatan sulfate
-As the age advances hyaluronic acid is replaced by (___) in synovial fluid. (___) is not a good lubricant, hence age-related pains develop in old people.
Collagen
-In young people, vitreous is clear elastic gel in which hyaluronic acid is associated with (___). As the age advances the elasticity of vitreous is reduced due to decreased association between (___) and hyaluronic acid. As a result, vision is affected in older people.
Hyaluronic acid
-is involved in wound healing (repair). In the initial phase of wound healing (repair), (___) concentration increases many folds at the wound site. It allows rapid migration of the cells to the site of connective tissue development.
Hydrolysis
-pneumonia, meningitis and bacteremia causing pathogenic bacteria contains hyaluronte lyase. Hydrolysis of HA by this enzyme facilitates invasion of host by these bacteria.
Chondroitin
-sulfates are components of cartilage, bone and tendons. They are also present in the cornea and retina of the eye. (___)content decreases in cartilage as age advances.
Heparin
-the repeating disaccharide unit of (___) consist of glucosamine and either iduronic acid or glucuronic acid.
Heparin
-a normal anti-coagulant present blood.It is produced by mast cells present in the arteries, liver, lung and skin.
Unlike other glycosaminoglycans, it is an intracellular component.
Glycoproteins
-They are found in mucous fluids, tissues, blood and in cell membrane.
Glycoproteins
-they are proteins containing short chains of carbohydrates. The carbohydrate chains are usually oligosaccharides.
Oligosaccharide
-present on the surface of erythrocytes are responsible for the classification of blood groups. They determine blood group and hence they are called as blood group substances.
Oligosaccharides
-determine the life span of proteins.
Glycoproteins
-cell-cell recognition depends on oligosaccharide chains of (___).
Glycoproteins
-(___) of some invertebrates function as anti-freezing agents. They are known as antifreeze (___) (AFGPs). It is very essential for their survival in such sub zero environment that exist at Antarctica. It is present in the blood of the Antarctic fishes. It prevents freezing by binding to ice, which enables these fishes to survive in the surrounding icy environment.
The ABO Groups
-The existence of four blood types namely
Carbohydrates
-A, B, AB and O is due to the presence of specific (___) found in the surface of red blood cells. These are called antigens because they can be recognized by the immune system as marker for "self" blood cells.
Coagulation
-when blood from an incompatible donor is transfused, the immune system sees it as foreign blood cells leading to an induced immune response that may lead to blood (___). Hence blood typing is a prerequisite process prior to transfusion.