Eastern Classical Civilizations
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism Textbook Notes
Hinduism
Life in ancient India centered on the family, the most basic unit in society
The Four Varnas
→ Vedic Aryans viewed a proper society as made up of 4 groups, called varnas, meaning “class”
→ emphasizes rituals or order
Priests (Brahmins)
Warrior-administrators(Kshatriyas): govern and protect
Folk (Vaisya): farmers, herdsman, artisans, majority of the population; supports society materially
Sudras: serve the other three classes; assure the stability and right functioning of the whole system
The Caste System
~late 15th - early 16th century
~ used to designate fixed social groups
Over the centuries of Ancient India, a caste system (a rigid multiplex social structure) developed across India, linked to the varna system.
Jati (birth) in a particular environment becomes the key marker of a person’s identity and place in society.
determined every aspect of daily life (who they were allowed to interact with, what jobs they could have)
Untouchables (“dalit”, meaning oppressed) : the lowest level and thought to be so impure that they aren’t considered a part of the caste system
traditionally performed the most polluting tasks, collecting garbage and disposing corpses
considered to be degrading if any other caste interacts with the dalit
Early Practice
1) The origins of Hinduism traces back to the Aryas (nobles), first appearing in Northwest India around 1500 B.C.
the Aryas noble thought can be found in the Vedas (wisdom), collections of hymns, speculation, and ritual instruction
2) The oldest forms of Hindu teachings are based in Vedic literature
Brahman (THE ULTIMATE GOAL!!!): ultimate reality; real person and the universal reality are the same
Yoga: disciplined effort, taming and training of faculties required to realize the ultimate goal and the goal itself as a living realization
Several yogas: yoga of knowledge, yoga of ritual practice, yoga of loyal devotion of bhakti
Principles of Hinduism
Reincarnation (rebirth): the belief that the soul is reborn after death
depending on the dedication and effort of the self, after some number of rebirths it will achieve its final goal of union with Brahman.
Karma (action-and-consequence): a person’s intentional acts have inevitable consequences and determine the person’s future condition in this life and in subsequent rebirthed lives
stressed personal responsibility and importance of ethics
have significantly influenced many non-Hindus around the world
Dharma (order, truth, duty, law)!!! - most important concept in Hindu teachings -
establishes which is right and proper and supportive of good order
defines duty and right behavior, which varies according to status
ex. Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna, Krishna
everyone who acted according to dharma enjoys improved conditions in their future lives as they continue towards Brahman.
Buddhism
Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha/Enlightened One)
→ Buddhism began in the sixth or fifth century B.C., first appearing in northern India, beginning with Gautama’s teachings of Enlightenment
Gautama was the son of a ruling princely family, living a luxurious and sheltered life
Gautama became aware of the pain of illness, sorrow of death, and effects of old age → decides to spend his life seeking the cure for human suffering
Began to follow the ascetics: people who practices self-denial to achieve an understanding of ultimate reality, but did not reach a good conclusion
Abandoning asceticism, he turned to meditation, eventually reaching enlightenment as the meaning of life.
Central Idea of Buddhism
→ Suffering comes from our attachment to material “things” in the world
If our desire is renounced, we will be freed from them and from the illusion that they exist and are worth desiring or possessing
Bodhi: awakening or enlightenment
Nirvana: the extinction of the fires of greed and desire
Middle Way: the way to avoid extremes, the core being the Four Noble Truths.
Eightfold Path:
Right view knowing the Four Noble Truths
Right intention resolving to attain Enlightenment
Right speech speaking truthfully and with kindness
Right action leading a moral life
Right livelihood working in a responsible, harmless way
Right effort ceaseless, unwavering striving to Enlightenment
Right mindfulness controlling our thought
Right concentration meditating to see the world as it is
→ rejected the Caste system + discouraged the formation of a cult
→ initially refused to admit women to his teachings, but later declared that women are capable of attaining Enlightenment as well
→ accepted the concept of Reincarnation and radicalized it.
Confucianism
Confucius = First Teacher
→ born in 551 B.C
→ upset by the moral decay of the chaotic period (preceding the Warring States period), Confucius provided a set of ideas that eventually became widely accepted in attempt to spread his ideas and persuade political leaders
Analects: Confucius’ teachings
Confucius’ interest in philosophy was political and ethical, not spiritual
→ if humans would act in harmony with the universe, their own affairs would prosper
Central Ideas
Dao (Way): duty and humanity
people must subordinate their own interests to the broader needs of the family and the community
individuals must be governed by the Five Constant Relationships
Parents should be loving, children should revere their parents
Husbands should fulfill their duties, and wives should be obedient (gender roles)
Elder siblings should be kind, younger siblings should be respectful
Older friends should be considerate, younger friend should be deferential (respectful, submissive)
Rulers should be benevolent, subjects should be loyal
If each individual worked hard to fulfill their duties, then the affairs of society as a whole would prosper as well
All humans are basically good
Humanity: empathy and compassion for others
“What you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others”
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism Nearpod Notes
Hinduism
brought to India from Central Asian Aryans
aryans: people who migrated from the Caucasus to Indo-Gangetic Plain (modern day India)
Key Characteristics:
Everyone’s path is individual
Polytheism: all gods are manifestation of one Supreme being
Reincarnation (Samsara): soul is reborn as another being, life conditions are improved if previous life’s dharma was fulfilled
Karma: behavior in current life determines next life
Moksha: the release from the cycle of Reincarnation
Caste system: social structure based on birth, very rigid
Brahmans (priests) , Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaisyas( folk, makes money), Sudras (serves the top three)
Ganges River: very sacred, bathed in to wash away sins
Aspects
Vedas: holy book consisting of hymns and stories, written in Sanskrit
earliest texts of early Hinduism
Dharma: divine law that rules karma, establishes duty
one’s role in life and society, divided based on the caste system
Reincarnation: soul will eventually achieve goal of union w/ Brahman after many rebirths
Yoga: training that leads to union with Brahman (ultimate reality)
Buddhism
first appeared in Northern India
Key Characteristics
fulfillment of self
Buddha (“Enlightened One”): Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism
Enlightenment: the extinction of greed and desires (bodhi)
Nontheistic: no belief in creator or supreme god, focuses on enlightenment
Dharma: based on five moral precepts from Buddha’s teachings
Four Noble Truths: follow the middle way
All life is suffering
The source of suffering is desire (all desire)
To stop suffering, you must rid yourself of desire
Follow the Eightfold Path
Karma: the law of cause and effect, action and consequence
Ashoka: build stupers to show devotion and claim benevolent rule
Dama: proper behavior towards servants; essentially reverence
Aspects
Reincarnation: belief in cycle of rebirth until enlightenment
Nirvana: state of inner peace and wisdom, release from suffering
Eightfold Path: avoid extremes, follow Middle Way to reach Nirvana
Meditation: mindfulness that awakens truth
Wheel of Dharma: Intention → Speech → Action → Effort → Mindfulness → Meditation
began in the Han dynasty and re-emerged in the Tang dynasty
began as Confucius’ desire to restore society as warring between states occurred
more philosophical than religious, more about social values
Key Characteristics
nullifies individualism, highlights selflessness
Philosophy: political and ethical, not spiritual
Dao: the way
Humanity: humans should lead by example
Five Key Relationships (Duty):
Father is head of the family, ruler to subject, husband to wife (patriarchal), parent to child, older to younger, friend to friend
Filial Piety: respect children should give to their parents and other elders of the family (taking care of your parents when they are old) → parents take care of children, children (when grown up) take care of parents
Analects: teachings of Confucius
Ancestor Veneration: linked to Filial Piety
Education of officials allowed them to gain power rather than money or aristocracy, leading to a scholar-oriented bureaucracy (emphasizes education)
Daoism and Legalism
Daoism
→ developed around the teachings of Laozi
→ rivaled Confucianism
→ belief in that the best way to act in harmony with the universal order is not to interfere with the natural order
Legalism
→ proposed that all humans beings were inherently evil
→ rejected the Confucian view that government based on merit could solve society
→ fundamental idea was an impersonal system of laws
→ strong ruler was required to create an orderly society, only harsh laws and stiff punishments would allow citizens to listen
→ rulers did not have to show compassion, as people were not capable of being good
The Mauryan and Gupta Empires
Alexander the Great attempted to conquer the Indian subcontinent, but abandoned the campaign, leaving a major power vacuum in the area. This allowed Chandragupta Maurya to consolidate his power.
Mauryan Empire
Aryan Invasion of India: people from central Asia that brought Sanskrit, early Hinduism, and the caste system
Chandragupta Maurya, ruling from 324 B.C. to 301 B.C.
Mauryan Empire was founded by him
united northern and central India into a single state with a single currency, local governance structure, and a centralized tax collection system
drove out foreign forces and established the capital in northern India at Pataliputra
established political influence in India through a well organized and highly centralized empire
empire was divided into provinces, ruled by governors appointed by the king
reinforced a large army and vast network of spies
stability of the Maurya Empire helped trade networks to flourish
turned to Jainism at the end of his reign, and eventually passed away after a long period of fasting
Ashoka, grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, is considered to be the greatest ruler in the history of India, in 268 BCE
renowned for his brutal and deadly conquests until…he has a realization after conquering Kalinga, death is suffering, even after retrieving the throne
first king to have converted to Buddhism, using Buddhist ideals to guide his rule and shape Indian civilization
led him to set up hospitals for the welfare of both people and animals
commissioned the construction of pillars inscribed with the teachings of the Buddha
sponsored Buddhist missionaries who spread Buddhist traditions and ideas throughout India and eventually China
expanded India’s role in regional commerce
India became a major crossroad in a trade network
went on pilgrimage tours and cared for citizens’ welfare
Ashoka’s Accomplishments
Built roads, schools, and hospitals for people and animals
extended trade routes
supported missionaries and monasteries to spread Buddhism
Following the death of Asoka, the Mauryan Empire began to decline, officially ending in 183 B.C., and beginning the Kushan Empire
Kushan Empire
nomadic warriors from Central Asia that established a kingdom that overspared and dominated North India for two centuries
prospered from trade that passed through their empire
moved along the modern Silk Road
trade expanded rapidly, goods were able to be shipped
practiced both Hinduism and Buddhism, and also Zoroastrianism from Persia
developed a calendar based on the sun and the moon, basis of modern Indian calendar
came to end in the third century A.D. when Persian invaders overran it
Empire of the Guptas (“India’s Golden Age”)
→ a new state was created in the central Ganges Valley by Candra Gupta
gained power by military prowess, marrying a princess and making alliances with other powerful families in the Ganges area + kept the capital at Pataliputra
promoted cultural developments, Hindu art
his son, Samudra Gupta, expanded the empire
Samudra Gupta loved poetry and music, and underwent forty years of war to grow the empire
The Gupta Empire became the most influential political force in northern India since the Mauryan Empire
created a golden age of Indian culture
much of their wealth came from religious trade as pilgrims from across India
many new Hindu and Buddhist temples and shrines were built during the Gupta era
Golden Age of India:
1) Alliances: negotiate and intermarry families
2) Two Centuries of Rule: greatest period of political stability
3) Temples: pilgrims bring in lots of money
4) Trade: Cloth, salt, and iron
5) Constructed an extensive network of roads
in the late fifth century A.D., invasions by nomadic Huns gradually reduced the power of the empire, eventually collapsing.
The Silk Road
a vast network of trading routes, connecting Europe to East Asia
trade expanded greatly in the Indian Ocean
India benefited from China’s silk trade
dispersed Gupta culture to China
brought wealth to India
Achievements of the Gupta Empire
Carved stone pillars
Buddhist stupas
Rock-cut caves
Astronomy: mapped earth out as a sphere, created star charts
Algebra
Concept of zero
Iron metalworking
Rama/Ramayana
→ an avatar of the god of Vishnu
→ derived from the poem Ramayana recorded by Valmiki
→ in Hindu and Buddhism culture
1) Rama is born as a prince, son to Kaushalya
2) Rama helps Viswamitra
3) Rama strings Shiva’s bow and breaks it in his hands
4) Rama and Sita are married
5) The king banishes Rama and his brothers and makes Bharata king
6) They are banished to the Dandaka forest in exile and have many adventures
7) Rama defeats the four thousand army
8) Ravana changes the Maricha to a golden deer and carries Sita away
9) Rama and his brother meet the monkey king (Sugriv) by trying to find Sita and Ravana
10) Sita is held in Lanka and Sugriv helps to find Sita because if a child of wind??
The Qin and Han Dynasties
The Qin Dynasty
Qin Shihuangdi
→ the first Qin emperor, coming to the throne in 246 B.C. at the age of 13
→ aggressive in foreign affairs
→ attempted to weaken the family, seeing familial loyalty as a strong threat to a strong monarch
→ united China and expanded the border to the Yuan River, doubling the size of China
The Emperor’s Army (Terracotta Army)
a vast army of terracotta warriors, meant to be with the emperor on his journey to the next world (tomb guards)
reflected the strong central power of the empire
emphasized individuality, as 10 different head shapes were used, all finished by hand, more than 6000 individualized figures
included horses, chariots, and bronze weapons
1/3 of the national income may have been spent on preparations for Qin Shihuangdi’s afterlife
The Great Wall
Qin was concerned with a nomadic population known as the Xiongnu in the north.
Walls had already been constructed in various states to keep out the nomads, but the Xiongnu had definite advantages
Qin Shihuangdi strengthened the existing system of walls by linking and fortifying them together
serves as an architectural reflection of the Qin dynasty’s defensive needs
modern Great Wall of China was not built until 1500 years later, but his wall was still a massive project that required the efforts of thousands
many of the efforts that contributed to the Great Wall were forced or serving out punishments
Politics
→ The Qin dynasty dramatically changed the political face of classical China
Legalism (the strict adherence to laws) was adopted as the official ideology of the regime, autocratic government
the Qin dynasty ruled a highly centralized state, divided into three divisions of the central government: the central division, the military division, and the censorate
the censorate included inspectors who checked on government officials to check if they were doing their jobs, becoming a standard procedure for future dynasties
below the central government, there were provinces and counties that had officials that were directly appointed and dismissed by the emperor
censors reported directly to the emperor, alerting him of any wrongdoings from officials
instituted censorship of speech, harsh taxes, and forced labor projects
angered many Chinese
Achievements
created a single monetary system
ordered the building of an extensive system of roads throughout the entire empire
reduced the powers of the landed aristocrats by dividing their estates among the peasants
eliminated possible rivals and gained tax revenues for the central government by taxing peasant lands
dug a canal to supply the army
The Han Dynasty
→ founded by Liu Pang, originally of peasant origin, but became known as Han Gaozu and established control over the empire and began the Han Dynasty
→ extended China to the South, added tens of millions of people to the population
→ extended China to the west, peak population of ~60 million
Political Structures
abandoned the Legalistic approach to law from the Qin dynasty and discarded the harsh policies from Qin Shihuangdi
Confucian principles started to play a large role in society, and eventually became the philosophy for state governing
Han rulers looked to Confucianism for guidance
continued Qin policies like merit over high birth, three ministries of central government, local government divided into provinces and counties
introduced the civil service exam and established schools
helped solidify the influence of Confucianism on government by entwining the philosophy into the curriculum
population rapidly increased, tripled
extended China’s borders
Society in the Han Empire
considered an era of great prosperity, aside from economic issues in rural areas
free peasants suffered through required military service and forced labor of up to one month
population tripled, so average acre per person reduced to 0.4 acres
aristocrats owned large plots of land, forcing free peasants to becoming tenant farmers
increased the importance of family in Chinese system of life
family became the basic economic unit and the basic social unit for education and training in morals
emphasis on filial piety
major expansion of trade and manufacturing, participated in foreign trade
Technology and Culture
much progress made in textile manufacturing, water mills, and iron casting → led to the invention of steel
development of paper, led to the art of paper-making and education becoming widespread
Two-Blade Plow, increasing food production for the increasing population
wheelbarrow
The Silk Road, encouraged cultural diffusion
invention of rudder and fore-and-aft rigging, allowing ships to sail and carry cargo, fueling the expansion of trade
the recording of history became the chief form of literary effort, capturing Chinese culture at the time and influencing future dynastic histories
expanded the Great Wall of China, created the reputation that the Great Wall was a horrible place to be through forced labor and deaths
Fall of the Han Empire
weak rulers caused the power of the central gov. to decline
great noble families amassed huge plots of land and forced free farmers to become their tenants
official corruption and unbalanced concentration of land caused unrest among peasants
height of population ~60 mil., declined to ~20 mil.
nomadic raids continued in the north
China plunged into a civil war caused by wars, peasant unrest, and intrigues at the court
Review
Caste system – First introduced as the Varnas by the Aryans, later evolved into the modern-day caste system that still influences India to this day, separating classes and even an “untouchable” class
Hinduism – The primary religious system of India, beliefs like reincarnation, karma, dharma, and Brahman. Brought to India through an early form by the Central Asian Aryans/Aryas with roots in the Vedas, a collection of hymns and poems and ritual instruction
Reincarnation – The belief in a cycle of rebirth, determined by the karma of one’s previous life, will eventually cease after one achieves union with Brahman, achieving Moksha
Karma – the principle of action-and-consequence, a person’s actions have inevitable consequences, emphasizing personal responsibility and ethics.
Dharma – one’s duty, highly dependent on one’s caste/role in society, drives karma, and establishes what is right and wrong. If one’s karma adheres to their dharma, their living conditions for their next life are improved.
Buddhism – Religious doctrine beginning with the Buddha (“Enlightened One”), or Siddhartha Gautama, stresses the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and Nirvana, deriving from Hinduism in northern India → central idea: suffering comes from desires and attachments, striving to end all suffering by eliminating all attachments”
Eightfold Path – the idea that in Buddhism, this is the path to “enlighten” or rid yourself of desires, providing a way to achieve the Four Noble Truths; cure to diagnosis
Four Noble Truths – Four principles that disciples of Buddhism are required to acknowledge and accept, foundational teachings of Buddhism
Nirvana – The awakening, or enlightenment, total extinction of greed and desire which is achieved through the Eightfold Path, grants freedom from the cycle of rebirth
Enlightenment – the wisdom of seeing clearly through illusions/attachments, also known as Bodhi
Silk Road – a network of trade routes in which expanded trading and prosperity for many early civilizations and fostered cultural diffusion, allowing religion to spread
Vedas – collection of hymns, speculation, and ritual instruction, the root of Hinduism’s beliefs and teachings
Confucianism – philosophy based off of Confucius’ teachings during the Zhou dynasty, emphasizes family as the basic social and economic unit, filial piety, humanity, idea that all humans are inherently good
Daoism – a philosophy/religion deriving from Lao Tzu’s teachings, foundational belief that the best way to act in harmony is to not interfere with natural order
Legalism – the complete opposite of Daoism + Confucianism, belief that all humans are inherently evil and therefore, should not be treated with compassion, emphasizing harsh punishments and strict laws
Civil Service – the exam invented during the Han dynasty, supporting Confucianism’s emphasis on education, helped demolish the aristocracy and appointed government officials based off merit rather than status → derived from Qin dynasty views
Great Wall – concerned with invasions from nomadic tribes from the north, Qin Shihuang connected an already existing system of walls to strengthen its power, serves as an architectural reflection of the Qin dynasty’s defensive needs
Zhou Dynasty – the rise of Confucianism + Daoism during the Warring States period, rise of the Mandate of Heaven, shaped the basic economic and social life of Chinese early civilization
Gupta Empire – “India’s Golden Age”, created by Candra Gupta who gained power through military prowess, strategic betrothals, and alliances with families. Made many mathematical, scientific, artistic, and architectural achievements. The Gupta Empire used the Silk Road, allowing the empire to expand their economy and trade.
Qin Dynasty – A prominent dynasty that introduced an autocratic government based off of Legalism, created a strong and centralized government, and implemented harsh laws and taxes. The Qin dynasty standardized currency, measurements, and writing systems. The Terracotta Army and the Great Wall were constructed, and unified China for the first time.
Han Dynasty – Another prominent dynasty that integrated Confucianism into the government, created the civil service exam, strong centralized government, expanded the Silk Road, faced peasant revolts and invasions from nomadic tribes, and made many technological advancements: paper, iron tools, wheelbarrows. Population rapidly increased.
Filial Piety – A foundational value in Confucianism; dictates that children owe deep reverence and obedience for elders and family; shaped culture through the Han dynasty
Indian Astronomers – Aryabhata (proposed heliocentric model of solar system, deduced Earth rotates on its own axis), Brahmagupta (introduced standard rules for the concept of zero)
Ashoka – a prominent ruler of the Mauryan Empire, first king to have converted to Buddhism and used Buddhist principles to guide Indian civilization. He used to be brutal and then turned peaceful after experienced the atrocities of war, building schools, hospitals, and roads for the welfare of others.
Mandate of Heaven – introduced during the Zhou dynasty, foundational idea that the heavens controlled the government and the emperor, being overthrown meant that the emperor misconducted and angered the heavens. This was used to justify the rule of the emperor.