Old Worlds, New Worlds - History 201
Old Worlds, New Worlds
Chapter 2: History 201
Introduction
During the 14th and 15th centuries, European nations sought luxury commodities from Ming China and the Orient.
Luxury Goods:
Spices (e.g., pepper)
Ceramics
Silk
Textiles
Tea
1453: The Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Mehmet II, seized Constantinople (renamed Istanbul), closing the land route to the Orient.
Forced Europeans to seek maritime routes around the coast of Africa.
Life in Europe
In the 1400s and 1500s, approximately 90% of Europe's population lived off the land.
Societal challenges:
Warfare
Poor transportation
Low grain yields leading to food shortages.
Consequence: A populace made vulnerable to diseases caused by malnourishment.
Thomas Hobbes characterized life during this period as "nasty, brutish, and short", noting that about ¼ of children died in their first year.
Socioeconomic Inequalities:
Wide gap between land-owning nobles/aristocrats and impoverished peasants and craft workers.
After the Black Death
The Black Death in the 1340s resulted in a loss of ¼ of Europe's population.
Survivors benefited from:
Higher wages and greater access to land.
These changes led to an expansion of trade, particularly among Italian merchants with Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.
Africa and the Portuguese
Europeans valued African commodities such as spices, ivory, and gold for centuries.
African coastal kingdoms controlled these goods and trading routes, motivating Europeans to pursue direct access by sea.
Limitations:
Existing vessels were inadequate for challenging the Atlantic on their return journeys.
Innovations in Maritime Exploration
Prince Henry the Navigator: Key figure in Portuguese exploration, initiated advancements in maritime technology.
Established a maritime school.
Funded exploratory voyages.
Encouraged sailors to tackle navigational challenges.
Advances in Sea Technology
15th-century shipbuilding innovations:
Ships built with a "skeleton" first, followed by planks attached to the frame.
Stronger hulls enabled the carrying of heavy cannons and supported taller masts/sails.
Caravel: A lightweight, highly maneuverable ship designed by the Portuguese.
Carrack: An oceangoing ship, larger than a caravel, used for exploring the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Trade with Africa
Mid-15th Century: The Portuguese engaged in trade along the west coast of Africa.
Challenges to colonization:
African kingdoms organized into chiefdoms focused on protecting trading networks.
European vulnerability to malaria, with mortality rates between ¼ and ½ from the disease.
African Empires Prior to 1500 CE
Notable Empires:
Persian Achaemenid Empire
Carthaginian Empire
Fatimid Caliphate
Ghana Empire
Mali Empire
Kanem Empire
Yoruba Empire
Umayyad Caliphate
Songhay Empire
Great Zimbabwe Empire
Bachwezi Empire
Portuguese Methods to Engage with African Kingdoms
Built forts along the coast to facilitate trade.
Paid tributes to local chiefs.
Offered textiles, metal goods, cowry shells, and beads in exchange for gold, ivory, pepper, and slaves.
Slavery and Sugar
Introduction of sugar to Europe came during the 11th-century Crusades, where the Turks cultivated it in the Holy Land.
Acknowledged economic potential but recognized labor intensity of sugar cultivation, requiring harvesting 24 days after maturity to prevent spoilage.
The labor demand led to the enslavement of individuals as a means to achieve the necessary labor force.
Expansion of Sugar Plantations
12th Century: After Muslim reclamation of Jerusalem, Europeans established new sugar plantations in the eastern Mediterranean islands.
Due to nutrient depletion in soil from cultivation, planters had to continually seek new islands for sugar production.
The Search for New Labor Sources Post-Black Death
Following the Black Death and land restrictions due to the Turks, Europeans sought fertile land for sugar and reliable sources of slave labor.
15th Century: Portuguese established sugar plantations within their territories but sought additional lands and slaves.
As they explored the Atlantic, they rediscovered islands like the Canary Islands, Azores, and Madeira, fueling an increase in sugar production supported by African slave labor.
Trade with West Africans
Portuguese exchanged iron bars, tools, woolen cloth, copper, and brass for gold, pepper, ivory, African textiles, and slaves.
Initial intentions inclined toward raiding, but learned to negotiate peacefully according to African rulers’ terms; involved kingdoms such as Mali, Ghana, and Songhai.
Rounding the Cape
Peace treaty (Treaty of Alcacovas) signed between Spaniards and Portuguese in 1479.
Portuguese gained knowledge of South Atlantic winds, facilitating southward navigation.
Bartholomew Dias sailed around the Cape of Good Hope in 1488; Vasco da Gama reached the Indian Ocean and arrived in India in 1498.
Christopher Columbus
Origin: Born in Genoa, Italy; married the daughter of a Portuguese nobleman.
Became convinced that a maritime voyage could link Iberia to East Asia.
Attempted for 7 years to persuade the Portuguese monarchy to sponsor his expedition but succeeded in gaining support from Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain after the Reconquista.
Columbus's Voyages
Columbus's fleet comprised two caravels (Nina, Pinta) and a larger carrack (Santa Maria).
Achieved landfall in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492, after a two-month journey, mistakenly believing he had reached the Orient.
Christened the land "San Salvador", The Holy Savior.
Explorations in the Caribbean
Traded with the Taino (misidentified as "Indians") and searched the Caribbean for three months before returning to Spain.
Completed three additional voyages to the New World; following 30 years, transatlantic travel between Europe and the New World became routine.
The Columbian Exchange
Columbus established Hispaniola during his second voyage through peaceful negotiations with natives, an exception amid often violent encounters.
The Columbian Exchange initiated an exchange of various goods and diseases:
From Europe to the New World: Pigs, chickens, dogs, cats, and diseases (smallpox, measles, chickenpox, TB);
From the New World to Europe: Syphilis, and crops such as lemons, oranges, figs, and bananas from Africa and the Canary Islands.
Geographic Misconceptions
Initial geographic misconceptions delayed realization that the newly encountered islands were not part of Europe or Asia.
Florentine Amerigo Vespucci notably labeled the islands "Mundus Novus" (New World).
A German cartographer named the land "America" in an honor that persists.
The Conquest of the Americas
Europeans experienced relatively peaceful trade with African populations.
In contrast, in the Americas, Europeans engaged in violent takeovers of native populations due to superior technology:
Advantages included: Guns, horses, diseases, metal swords, and cannons.
Taino were perceived as more docile compared to African populations.
The Aztec Empire and Hernan Cortes
The Aztec Empire dominated modern-day Mexico with their capital city, Tenochtitlan.
Economic activities centered around trade in gold, silver, jade, feathers, and foodstuffs.
Emperor Moctezuma held dual status as both god and ruler, with the populace regularly paying tributes.
The Arrival of Hernan Cortes
1519: Hernan Cortes, a Spanish explorer, departed Cuba for mainland Mesoamerica with an expedition of 11 ships, 6 warhorses, and approximately 600 men seeking fortune.
Teamed with Tlaxcala warriors; engaged and attacked Tenochtitlan, successfully capturing Emperor Moctezuma within his palace.
Although driven out briefly by Moctezuma's younger brother, Cortes returned, and the eventual smallpox epidemic decimated the Aztec population.
Population Decline and Disease Impact
The population of the Aztec Empire plummeted dramatically due to European diseases.
Prior to disease, approximately 25.2 million inhabitants reduced to around 700,000 by 1623.
Conquest of the Inca Empire
1532: Francisco Pizarro executed an Inca ruler while taking him hostage, facilitating the Spanish transformation of the Inca Empire into a dependency of Spain.
The Encomienda System
Conquistadors initiated the enslavement of native populations to forge a labor source in the New World.
Under the encomienda system, benefits included:
Spanish landowners (encomenderos) received the right to seize indigenous lands and enslave the natives.
In return for labor and tax payments, encomenderos provided protection and instruction in Christianity.
Downfall of the Encomienda System
Although the Church eventually recognized natives as "brothers", many encomenderos mistreated them despite legal protections against harsh treatment.
Bartolome de las Casas
By 1560, over 800 religious officials worked in New Spain, primarily Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits, focusing on converting indigenous peoples to Catholicism and European culture.
Bartolome de las Casas authored "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies", which critiqued the mistreatment of natives and prompted reforms leading to the abrogation of the encomienda system and the implementation of the "New Laws" that prohibited the enslavement of natives.
De Las Casas' Critique
Contended that the actions in the Indies were unpardonable offenses against humanity, labeling the slave trade as among the most unjust and cruel practices.
The Silver Boom
1570s: Spain's dominion in the New World generated vast quantities of silver, primarily sourced from Central and South American mines (notably in Mexico and Peru).
Rulers typically converted silver into coins or utilized it as a trade commodity.
Factors Driving the Silver Boom
Potosi Discovery: In 1545, prospectors uncovered significant silver ore deposits in Potosi, Bolivia.
Mexican Lodes: A year later, an additional sizable deposit in northern Mexico was discovered.
Mining Techniques: In the 1560s, the Spanish devised a method to extract mercury from crushed silver ore, which facilitated silver production.
Mita System: Instituted by Francisco de Toledo, the viceroy of Peru, requiring that Andean natives provide a contingent of laborers for mines annually; characterized by exploitation and hazardous working conditions with minimal pay.
State Control of Silver Supply
While most mines were privately owned, the Spanish crown monopolized the mercury supply.
The crown claimed 1/5 of processed silver plus taxes.
Despite regulations, miners/merchants often circumvented the trained system by transporting an estimated 15% to 30% of silver “illegally” via the Rio de la Plata to the Atlantic.
Northern Exploration
As sugar plantations flourished in the Caribbean with slave labor, explorers sought north for further wealth.
1513: Juan Ponce de Leon, governor of Puerto Rico, made landfall in Florida, encountering hostilities from local natives wary of Spanish raiders.
Further Exploration and Violence
In the 1540s, Hernan de Soto trekked through the American South, burning villages and seizing resources from natives.
In Alabama, he decisively defeated Chief Tuskaloosa, estimated to have killed around 6,000 natives.
Many tribes displayed varied responses: some resisted, while others directed him toward rival tribes.
De Soto's Death and Legacy
De Soto died in May 1552 from fever near the Mississippi River, and his remains were purportedly sunk in the river by his men.
Despite his demise, Spain maintained supremacy in the New World amid Europe’s religious turmoil.
Religious Crisis in Europe
The Roman Catholic Church served as a significant institution in western and central Europe, engaged in administration, finance, and education.
Failures to alleviate suffering during the Black Death led to widespread discontent:
Accounts of corrupt bishops, priests with illegitimate children, and pope’s familial wealth accumulation.
Indulgences were sold to laypeople seeking salvation.
Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation
1517: Martin Luther publicly denounced the sale of indulgences, claiming they undermined the principles of Christianity.
Revolutionized by efforts to advocate for reform, involves church excommunication in 1520 but gained protection from the Elector of Saxony. - The movement attracted support from various German princes desiring financial independence from the Catholic Church.
Emergence of independent churches across Germany, Switzerland, and elsewhere.
Fragmentation of Protestantism
Protesters rejected church authority, but not everyone identified as "Lutheran" due to disagreements regarding church hierarchy and iconography.
John Calvin proposed ideas of predestination, with doctrine emphasizing that God elects who shall be saved.
Radical sects such as Quakers and Anabaptists emerged with distinct theological stances, advocating adult baptism and political pacifism.
The English Reformation
King Henry VIII split from the Catholic Church seeking a divorce from Catherine of Aragon to ensure a male heir.
The new church remained fundamentally Catholic but recognized Henry as the head of the church in England.
Continued Struggle for Protestantism
Under Henry VIII’s son, Edward VI, Protestant advancements unfolded, later facing persecution under Mary I.
Elizabeth I, daughter of Anne Boleyn, molded her reign to defend Protestantism, facing pressures from Puritans demanding further reforms.
Engaging with Ireland
Elizabeth I grew wary of the Catholic population in England, fearing they might ally with Spain or France.
Launched military actions into Catholic Ireland to suppress potential revolts.
Ireland as a Model for Colonization
Catholic Irish populations viewed by Protestant English explorers, including Humphrey Gilbert and Walter Raleigh, as superstitious and barbaric, justifying conquest ideologically.
Rationale for Conquest
The English missionaries posited it was their sacred duty to instill hard work, lawfulness, and Protestant Christianity among the Irish.
The failed Irish resistance led to violent reprisals by the English, establishing a violent model for future colonization efforts in the Americas.
Humphrey Gilbert and the Royal Charter
1578: Queen Elizabeth granted Gilbert the first royal charter, authorizing exploration, occupation, and governance of unclaimed territories in America.
Gilbert envisioned a feudal system for settlers but never executed his plan, reportedly lost at sea on his expedition.
Walter Raleigh and the Roanoke Expedition
Gilbert's stepbrother Raleigh pursued colonization plans in North America, working with Richard Hakluyt to advocate for settlement.
Summer 1584: Raleigh sent an exploratory voyage to the Outer Banks of North Carolina, interacting with friendly natives and Chief Wingina.
Raleigh named the land "Virginia" in honor of the Virgin Queen.
Subsequent Roanoke Expeditions
Chief Wingina welcomed Raleigh’s expedition, misjudging the English settlers’ intentions.
Leadership by Sir Richard Grenville and Ralph Lane, veterans of Irish campaigns, resulted in hostility.
Wingina’s efforts to restore peace were met with violence; he was ultimately ambushed and killed.
Return of the Remaining Settlers
Remaining settlers, fearful of retaliation, chose to abandon the colony and escape with Francis Drake back to Europe.
Second Attempt at Roanoke
Raleigh organized a second expedition to Chesapeake Bay, with John White as governor.
White sought peaceful coexistence but was impeded by navigational errors landing at Roanoke Island.
Sending White back to England for reinforcements in July 1587, political unrest delayed his return until 1590.
The Mystery of Croatoan
Upon White's return, he discovered an empty village with the cryptic postscript "CROATOAN" left as a potential clue to the fate of the settlers.
Remains unresolved about the colony's fate by 1600, a century after Columbus's original voyage.
Raleigh's Posthumous Fate
Following the death of Queen Elizabeth, James VI of Scotland ascended to the English throne (James I).
Raleigh was imprisoned in the Tower of London for 15 years, later executed for treason after a botched raid on Spanish ships, influencing English colonial strategies moving forward.
Works Cited
Davidson, James West, Brian DeLay, Christine Leigh Heyrman, Mark H. Lytle, and Michael B. Stoff. U.S.: A Narrative History, Seventh Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.
Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American Edition, Brief Third Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012.