The Times They Are A’ Changing’ Part II: Richard Nixon to Watergate 1968-1974

Nixon's Election and the Conservative Resurgence

Nixon's election in 1968 was heavily influenced by the chaos of the Johnson years, particularly the events of 1968.
He capitalized on American discontent with:
- Anti-war protests
- The counterculture
- Drug use.
- Failures in Vietnam.
Nixon ran as a "hawk" on Vietnam, promising "peace with honor."
He emphasized law and order and appealed to conservative Southern Democrats (Dixiecrats).
His victory marked a political turning point: Americans associated the Democratic party with:
- Vietnam
- Anti-war protests
- Violence.
Nixon's election signaled a Conservative Resurgence, a rejection of New Deal liberalism and a return to conservative values.

Nixon, Foreign Policy, and Vietnam

Nixon aimed to reduce Cold War tensions through strength and diplomacy.
He appointed Henry Kissinger as his national security advisor to deal with the Soviets, Chinese, and North Vietnamese.
Vietnamization: Nixon's program to end US involvement in Vietnam.
- Gradual withdrawal of US forces.
- Transferring the burden of fighting to the South Vietnamese (ARVN).
- The US provided ARVN with money, weapons, supplies, and training but no direct combat troops.
Nixon Doctrine: US would support Asian allies but not with US ground forces.
Troop withdrawals were slow, but by 1972, troop numbers decreased from 540,000 to 30,000. By 1973, all US forces were gone.

Opposition and Expansion of the War

Troop withdrawals reduced antiwar opposition but didn't eliminate it.
Nixon aimed to win the war and authorized covert attacks on VC/NVA supply lines in neutral Laos and Cambodia in April 1970.
US troops were frustrated by their inability to pursue the enemy into Cambodia, where they regrouped and resupplied.
Nixon violated the Tonkin Agreement by secretly expanding the war into Cambodia.
Announcement of the invasion led to renewed protests on college campuses, including violence and property damage.
Kent State University incident (May 4, 1970): Four antiwar protestors were killed by National Guard troops.
Jackson State University incident: Two protestors were killed by National Guard troops.

My Lai Massacre and Pentagon Papers

Details of the My Lai Massacre (March 16, 1968) emerged, where US soldiers killed Vietnamese villagers.
The New York Times published the Pentagon Papers in 1971, revealing the CIA's secret history of US involvement in Indochina from 1945-1967.
- Showed Kennedy's involvement in President Diem's assassination.
- Exposed the Johnson Administration's deception regarding the war.
Congress repealed the Tonkin Resolution, limiting the president's power in Vietnam.

Negotiations and the Paris Accords

Nixon and Kissinger opened secret negotiations with North Vietnamese foreign minister Le Duc Tho.
Kissinger's announcement of "peace is at hand" was premature.
Tho refused to negotiate the removal of North Vietnamese troops from South Vietnam.
Nixon ordered the "Linebacker II" bombing offensive (Christmas Bombings).
The Paris Accords of 1973 ended US involvement in Vietnam.
- The US agreed to remove all troops and have 500 POWs returned.
- North Vietnam promised free elections in South Vietnam but kept troops in the South.
The US evacuated Vietnam at the cost of 118 billion and 58,000 American lives.
In 1975, North Vietnam launched a successful offensive, toppling the South Vietnamese government.

Nixon, The Soviets, and China

Nixon's foreign policy successes are often overlooked due to scandals like Watergate and Cambodia.
He navigated the Cold War, dealing with aggressive Russians, Red Chinese, and the French.
USSR: Leonid Brezhnev was the Soviet premier.
- The Soviets sought a hard-liner after Khrushchev's perceived weakness during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
PRC (People’s Republic of China): Mao Zedong was the leader of the Chinese Communist Party.
- Mao supported North Vietnam due to philosophical issues.
- He had a strong dislike for the Soviets.
The divide between Red China and the Soviet Union allowed Nixon to play a "divide and conquer" strategy.
Nixon initiated détente with Red China, despite the US not formally recognizing its existence since 1947.
In February 1972, Nixon traveled to Beijing to meet with Chairman Mao.
This trip led to the US formally recognizing Red China in 1979.

SALT I and Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Nixon used Soviet suspicions of US motives in China to his advantage.
He pressured the Russians to discuss nuclear non-proliferation.
Both the US and USSR were concerned about antiballistic missiles (ABMs).
The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) resulted in both countries freezing the number of ballistic missiles.

Nixon, the Conservative Resurgence, and the New Federalism

Nixon laid the foundation for the shift from New Deal liberalism to conservatism.
He appealed to the "Silent Majority" who were tired of antiwar protests and the counterculture.
New Federalism: Shifting responsibility for social programs from the federal government back to the states.
Congress agreed to award 30 billion in block grants to the states.

Stagflation and Economic Policies

Stagflation: Slow economic growth coupled with rising inflation.
Nixon tried to cut federal spending, leading to a recession and unemployment.
He resorted to deficit spending, stating, "Well, we’re all Keynesians now."
He implemented a 90-day price and wage freeze in 1971.
He took the US off the gold standard and raised tariffs by 10\%.
By 1972, his policies halted the recession and slowed inflation.

Social Initiatives and the Burger Court

Nixon approved an automatic increase in Social Security to reflect the cost of living.
He supported Title IX, which ended sex discrimination in institutions receiving federal funding.
- It mandated equitable athletic opportunities for women.
The Burger Court, while conservative, made controversial decisions.
Roe v Wade (1973): Legalized abortion, angering conservatives.
United States v Nixon (1974): Limited executive privilege, forcing Nixon to release evidence in the Watergate investigation.

The Election of 1972

Nixon sought his second term with a strong economy and easing Cold War tensions.
The Cambodian Invasion revelation didn't harm his popularity.
He ran against George McGovern, a liberal antiwar senator.
George Wallace of the American Independent Party posed a third-party threat.
Wallace was shot in 1972, removing the threat.
Nixon won an historic victory.

War Powers Act and the Yom Kippur War

The invasion of Cambodia prompted Congress to curb executive power.
The War Powers Act (1973) limited the president’s power over the military.
- Required the president to report to Congress within 48 hours of ordering military action.
- Military action lasting more than 60 days required Congressional approval.
In the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian and Syrian troops invaded Israel on October 6.
Nixon pledged full US support to Israel, providing $2 billion in arms.

OPEC Oil Embargo

In response to US support for Israel, OPEC placed an oil embargo on exports to supporters of Israel.
This caused an oil shortage in the US, leading to gasoline rationing and rising prices.
Americans shifted to fuel-efficient Japanese cars, resulting in job losses in the US auto industry.
The American economy suffered due to inflation caused by OPEC.
The government lowered the speed limit on interstate highways to 55 mph to conserve gas.

Watergate

Despite Nixon's strong position in the 1972 election, he feared another Kennedy, specifically Edward (Ted) Kennedy.
Ted Kennedy's presidential aspirations were damaged by the Chappaquiddick incident in 1969.
Nixon ordered his aides, Bob Haldeman and John Erlichman, to investigate the Democrats.
In June 1972, five men were caught burglarizing the Democratic National Party headquarters in the Watergate Hotel Complex.
The burglars were placing wiretaps and had connections to the CIA and the White House.

Watergate Investigation and Cover-Up

The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein led the investigation.
Revelations surfaced about illegal activities and "dirty tricks" funded by the Campaign to Re-Elect the President (CREEP).
CREEP money was used to buy the silence of the Watergate burglars.
White House advisor John Dean testified that Nixon was linked to a cover-up.
The Senate Investigating Committee demanded tapes from the Oval Office, but Nixon refused, citing "executive privilege."
The Supreme Court ruled against Nixon in United States vs Nixon, stating there was no such thing as "executive privilege."
Nixon handed over selected transcripts, not the tapes themselves, and claimed, "I’m not a crook."

Impeachment and Resignation

The transcripts didn't satisfy the committee, leading to the Supreme Court forcing Nixon to hand over all the tapes.
Investigators discovered that 18 ½ minutes had been erased from a tape, indicating tampering with evidence.
On February 6, 1974, the House of Representatives filed three articles of impeachment against Richard Nixon:
- Obstruction of Justice
- Abuse of power
- Contempt of Congress
Senate Republicans informed Nixon they wouldn't support him.
Faced with conviction, Nixon resigned in August 1974.

Aftermath and Legacy

Vice President Gerald Ford claimed, "Our great national nightmare is over."
Reporters Woodward and Bernstein's source, "Deep Throat," was revealed to be FBI associate director Mark Felt.
Nixon ordered the CIA to halt the Watergate investigation, an obstruction of justice.
The Watergate scandal crippled the Conservative Resurgence.
Americans lost faith in their government after the Pentagon Papers, Cambodia, and Watergate.
Gerald Ford pardoned Nixon.
By 1976, Americans sought a change, leading to the election of Jimmy Carter.