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The Historical Development of Community Organization from Its Western Beginning

According to Murray G. Ross, community organizing “a process by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will do work at these needs or objectives, finds the resources (external and internal) to deal with these needs and objectives, takes action in respect of them, and in doing so, extends and develops cooperative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”.

Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601

The history of community organization in Western society is marked by key developments that have significantly shaped modern social welfare practices. This evolution began with the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601, a landmark in the social welfare system of England and Wales. This law formalized the practice of providing relief to the poor, building on the foundation of the Old Poor Law of 1597. The Elizabethan Poor Law introduced a system that could be described as "parochial," meaning that the responsibility for administering relief was placed on local parishes, the smallest administrative units in the legal system at that time. This law was a key moment in the history of social welfare, establishing structured support for the impoverished within a community-based framework.

Poverty was mostly considered to be your own fault in Elizabethan times. During the Elizabethan era, society was rigidly hierarchical, with limited social mobility. Poverty was often viewed as a consequence of personal failings, such as laziness or immorality, reinforced by the Protestant work ethic. However, as economic factors like population growth and the enclosure movement led to more widespread poverty, the government began to recognize that not all poverty was due to individual faults. This recognition resulted in the Poor Laws, which differentiated between the "deserving poor," who received assistance, and the "undeserving poor," who were often punished or forced to work. 

• Impotent poor- people unable to work due to age, disability or other infirmity. 

• Able- bodied poor- these were people who were physically able to work but are financial poor.

1601 saw the formalization of earlier acts and laws of poor relief. Poor Laws were key pieces of legislations:

• Nationwide poor rate- they brought in a compulsory nationwide poor rate system.

• Contribute or jail- everyone had to contribute and those who refused would go to jail.

• Begging banned- begging was banned and anyone caught was whipped and sent back to their place of birth.

• Almshouses- almshouses were established to look after the impotent poor.

The poor laws can be seen as a major shift in English history, for the first time the government was responsible for the welfare of the people in society.

Charity Organization Society (COS) and the Settlement House movements

The loss of "community" and mutual aid common in rural Western countries due to urbanization was the driving force behind the formation of the Charity Organization Society (COS) movement. Urban environments, by their nature, contributed to industrial accidents, illnesses, unemployment, poverty, family breakdowns, and other social and economic issues. Individuals and families without support or resources had limited options when facing unemployment, illness, old age, or physical disability: they might seek public relief, to private charities, or request help from strangers.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the emergence of the Charity Organization Society (COS) and the Settlement House movements, both of which played pivotal roles in the advancement of community organization and social work. The COS, founded in 1869 in London by Octavia Hill and Helen Bosanquet, aimed to address poverty through organized charity and community support with minimal government intervention. The founders believed in helping individuals and families improve their situations by fostering self-reliance and social responsibility, rather than depending on extensive government aid. This period marked the beginning of structured social work and set the stage for modern social welfare practices.

In the United States, the expansion of the COS brought organized charity work to cities across the nation. The COS first reached Buffalo, New York, in 1877 through the efforts of an English priest named Reverend S. Humphreys Gurteen. Over the next six years, the organization expanded its operations to 25 cities across America. In 1882, the Charity Organization Society of New York City was founded by Josephine Shaw Lowell, marking a significant development in the spread of organized charity work in the U.S. This movement played a crucial role in addressing social issues and laying the groundwork for modern social work practices.

The emphasis on a scientific approach led to the use of investigation, registration, and supervision of applicants for charity. It resulted too in community-wide efforts to identify and coordinate the resources and activities of private charities organizations and the establishment of centralized “clearinghouses” or registration bureaus that collected information about the individuals and families receiving assistance. 

The general methods by which this society seeks to affect its objects and carry out its principles are: (1) Cooperation of all existing agencies. (2) Districting of the city and thorough investigation of the poverty and realism in the districts, and of the history, character and condition of every applicant for relief. (3) Organizing a trained band of visitors who go from house to house in friendly ways. 

The passage describes three key strategies for improving charitable efforts in a city:

1. Cooperation of Charitable Agencies: The idea is to unite official and private aid through a council or executive committee comprising the mayor, police, overseer of the poor, and heads of institutions, alongside representatives from local charities, fraternities, private institutions, and churches. This collective body would combine wisdom and resources to effectively address social issues, presenting a unified front against fraud, exchanging information, and implementing well-planned initiatives.

2. Districting the City: The city is divided into districts or wards, each managed by a district committee or ward conference made up of clergy, local charities, and other social agencies. A superintendent is appointed to understand the needs and challenges of the district and coordinate relief efforts. The focus is on individualized care, ensuring that each case is registered and addressed personally.

3. Organized Visitors: To prevent charitable work from becoming too administratively rigid and impersonal, bands of visitor’s men and women are organized to visit the poor in their homes. These visitors provide friendship, emotional support, and personal connection, without giving material aid or engaging in religious instruction. Their role is to build trust and offer genuine human connection.

The English Settlement Movement, which began in 1880 and reached its peak with the establishment of Toynbee Hall in the East End of London in 1884 and spread across Britain and America in the following decades, has long been considered an important aspect of the history of social policy before the First World War, aimed to address social issues by housing young men from prestigious universities like Oxford and Cambridge in deprived areas. These individuals engaged in social work, living among and assisting the poor communities of the East End, thus promoting education, social reform, and mutual understanding between different social classes. Toynbee Hall became a model for similar settlements around the world.

The American Settlement Movement was a significant social reform effort in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with Hull House, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889, serving as a prominent example. Unlike the charity and welfare efforts that preceded it, Hull House was not a religious-based organization. Instead of a Christian ethic, Addams chose to ground her settlement on democratic ideals. This movement aimed to support immigrants and marginalized groups by providing housing and fostering a sense of community, particularly for women. Hull House became a hub for social activism, offering educational and cultural programs, and serving as a model for other settlement houses across the United States. The focus was on understanding the challenges faced by residents and working together to solve community issues.

The Settlement Movement in the United Kingdom or English Settlement and the United States or American Settlement shared a common goal of addressing social inequalities, but they developed with distinct differences:

English Settlement Movement 

• Originated in the late 19th century in response to the Industrial Revolution's poverty. It aimed to connect the wealthy with the poor by having educated individuals live among the urban poor to provide education and social services.

• Focused on education, cultural activities, and social research, aiming for systemic change through understanding poverty.

• Linked to Christian socialism and social responsibility, it was more academic and moralistic.

• Maintained a critical stance towards the state, working independently within communities.

American Settlement Movement

• Inspired by the UK, it emerged later, focusing on challenges from urbanization and immigration. It emphasized community-based social reform.

• Prioritized direct social services like healthcare and employment training, with a pragmatic approach to improve daily life.

• Influenced by realism and progressivism, it was action-oriented, focusing on solving practical problems.

• Collaborated closely with government entities to implement social programs and reforms. 

Settlements were characterized not by a set of services but by an approach. If the original stimulus came from sponsors outside the neighborhood, the approach consisted of moving in to the needy area, reaching out in a friendly way to the neighbors, and deciding together with them what was wrong and what was needed.

The Rise of Federation 1917 to 1935

The Rise of Federation 1917 to 1935 It is a period where we can see the growth and development of chests and councils. It started with the rise of war chests in 1917 and ended with the enactment of social security act, which set the stage for development of the public welfare programmes in 1935. A large number of chests and councils came up after First World War. The American Association for Community Organization was organized in 1918 as the national agency for chests and councils and it later became known as Community Chests and Councils of (CCC) America. The Cincinnati Public Health Federation, established in 1917, was the first independent health council in an American City. It is in this period that the American Association of Social Workers organized in 1921, the first general professional organization, set up its training for the social workers and others who specialized in community organization.

 A community chest is a voluntary welfare agency, co-operative organization of citizens and welfare agencies, which is the powerful local force for community welfare that handles large funds. It has two functions. It raises funds through a community- wide appeal and distributes them according to a systematic budget procedure. Secondly, it promotes cooperative planning, co-ordination and administration of the community social welfare.

Period of Expansion and Professional Development 1935 to Present Time

Period of Expansion and Professional Development 1935 to Present Time It is in this period that we see the greater use of the community organization process in the field of public welfare. A marked significance of this era is the establishment of Federal Security Agency where we see maximum involvement of the Govt. in welfare programmes. In 1946 the agency was strengthened and re-organized following which in 1953 Department of Health, Education and Welfare was established.

 Another important development during the period is the professional development that took place. Some of the important professional developments were:

The National Conference of Social Work in 1938-39 undertook a study on community organization, which was later published under the title “Generic Community Welfare Organization”. Based on this, another study was undertaken in 1940, but due to American involvement in World War II an active program could not take off. 

In 1946, at the National conference of social work in Buffalo, the Association for the Study of Community Organization (ASCO) was organized. The main objective was to improve the professional practice of organization for social welfare.

 In 1955, ASCO merged with six other professional organizations to form the National Association of Social Workers. Community organization has been recognized as integral and important aspect of social work education in the American Association of Schools of social work education. At present, there is an active committee of Council on Social Work Education involved in the production of teaching materials in community organization. 

The first contemporary textbook on community organization titled “Community Organization for Social Welfare”, published in 1945, has been written by Wayne McMillan. 

Another development in the history of community development is seen in the wake of World War II. Wartime needs were very special and crucial. During this time many councils and community war services came to the forefront. Among them, United Service Organization (USO) is of prime importance as it was the union of many forces that served the needs of the military personnel and defense communities. The other striking characteristic of the period is the immense increase in the volunteer service i.e. defense council, American Red Cross and USO, which co-ordinated and recruited the volunteers. 

Another development that took place at the wartime is the growth of closer relationship between labour and social work, which is considered to be of great significance to community organization. 

The other developments that took place after the World War II, which were very specific to community organization area are as follows: 

• The rehabilitation of the physically and mentally challenged 

• Mental health planning, problems of the aging

•  Prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency.

In order to address these issues, separate bodies were set up and we see the entry of international agencies in the field of community organization. The present situation in community organization is the emergence of the new community development programmes, which aim at providing services to the less developed areas in international social welfare. Therefore, the present agenda is on working with the whole community and greater emphasis is on self-help.

Community Organisation in United Kingdom:

Baldock (1974) has summed up the historical development in U.K. by diving in to four phases.

First Phase (1880 – 1920): During this period the community work was mainly seen as a method of social work. It was considered as a process of helping the individuals to enhance their social adjustments. It acted as major player to co-ordinate the work of voluntary agencies.

Second Phase: (1920 – 1950):  This period saw the emergence of new ways of dealing with social issues and problems. The community organization was closely associated with central and state Government programme for urban development. The important development in this period was its association with community association movement.

Third Phase (1950 onwards): This period emerged as a reaction to the neighborhood idea, which provided an ideological phase for the second phase. The professional development of social work took place during this period. Understanding the shortcomings in the existing system, it was a period where the social workers sought for a professional identity.

Fourth Phase: The ongoing period that has marked a significant involvement of the community action. It questioned the very relationship of the community work and social work. It was thus seen as period of radical social movement and we could see the conflicts of community with authority. The association of social workers and the community are deprofessionalized during this period. Thus it was during this period the conflictual strategies that were introduced in the community work, although even now there is no consensus on this issue (Baldock 1974).