Prehistory and the Stone Age in India

What is Prehistory?

PREHISTORY refers to the period of human history before writing, when humans were evolving biologically from primates. It covers early man's struggle for survival, marked by progress from hunting and food-collecting to food-producing and cattle-herding. Since early humans didn't write, their artifacts (tools, pottery, ornaments) are the primary source of information, along with traces of huts, hearths, and burials. Recent excavations, dating techniques, and multidisciplinary approaches have enhanced our understanding of prehistory.

Stone Age

Prehistory also known as the Stone Age due to stone being the chief material used for tools represents the largest period of human history. Documentation of evidence in India first began with the discovery of a hand-axe at Pallavaram near Madras (Chennai) in 1863 by Robert B. Foote, known as the Father of Indian Prehistory.

Periods of Pre-history

Indian prehistory is divided into:

• Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age)

• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)

• Neolithic (New Stone Age)

Each period has distinct features and improvements in tool-making.

• Palaeolithic: Shift from heavy, asymmetrical tools to flake-based tools.

• Mesolithic: Use of microliths (small, geometric tools) in the form of triangles, crescents etc.

• Neolithic: Polished and ground tools having better and sharper cutting edge; emergence of farming communities. Pottery and hut-like structures are also characteristics of the Neolithic period.

Gordon Childe (1892-1957) introduced the concept of a "Neolithic Revolution" to emphasize the dynamic impact of farming and settled life. However, current data suggests a more gradual transition or evolution rather than a sudden revolution.

Factors Influencing Transformations

Environmental factors influence resource use, but humans can overcome obstacles through skills and endeavours. Other factors include cultural traditions, cultural contact (socio-economic interaction with contemporary social groups), and demographic profiles (need to feed more people).

Scientific Techniques in Archaeology

Dating methods are mainly based directly or indirectly on the principle of Radioactive decay. Methods like Radiocarbon(C14) dating, thermoluminescence dating, potassium-argon dating, electron spin resonance, uranium series, and fission-track dating are crucial. These techniques allow archaeologists to accurately estimate the age of artifacts and fossils, helping to construct a timeline of human activity and cultural evolution in prehistoric India.

Palaeolithic Age

The Palaeolithic period (Old Stone Age) spans from about $2$ million years ago (m.y.a.) to $10,000$ BP (before present). Early humans coexisted with megafauna such as buffalo, rhino, tiger, elephant and used stone tools for survival.

The Palaeolithic Age is divided into:

• Early or Lower Palaeolithic

• Middle Palaeolithic

• Late or Upper Palaeolithic

This division is based on tool improvements.

• Lower Palaeolithic: Heavy pebble tools (chopper-chopping tools and hand-axes).

• Middle Palaeolithic: Tools made on flakes.

• Upper Palaeolithic: Sharp blades and burins.

These tools show regional variations; however, similarity across the Indian subcontinent in their form, technique and raw materials.

Transition

The transition between stages was gradual from lower to middle to upper paleolithic ages. De Terra and Patterson (1939) found five different terraces in the Soan River valley (near Rawalpindi, Pakistan) with tools evolving from heavier and cruder to thiner and finer.

The Belan Valley (region from Allahabad to Varanasi) shows a complete sequence from Lower Palaeolithic to Neolithic and Chalcolithic. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) shows continuous Prehistoric occupation from Early to Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic. Patne (Maharashtra) also shows continuous sequence of stone age culture from Middle palaeolithic to the Mesolithic age.

Function of Palaeolithic Tools

Palaeolithic tools served purposes like hunting, butchering, skinning of animals, digging of roots, and making wooden tools.

Chronology

The earliest stone tools in India are pebble tools from Riwat (Pakistan), dated around $2$ m.y.a. by Rendell and Denell,putting these tools in India at par with those found in Africa. Tools from Dina and Jalalpur (Jhelum basin, Pakistan) are believed to be $1.2$ to $2$ million years old. Tools from Bori (Maharashtra) were initially thought to be $1.38$ m.y. old but are now believed to be around $670,000$ years old.

The following time is attributed to the tools of the respective periods:

• Early Palaeolithic: Around $600,000$ to $150,000$ BP.

• Middle Palaeolithic: $150,000$ to $40,000$ BP.

• Upper Palaeolithic: $40,000$ to $10,000$ BP.

Tool Technology

The tool-types represent technological skills of different human species: Homo erectus, Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens sapiens. Various lithic techniques like percussion technique ,were used to shape tools. Earlier tools were all-purpose, while later ones became task-specific.

Early Palaeolithic Period

Two tool cultures were seen in this period:

• Soan or Sohan culture(named after river Soan): Pebble-based tools (chopper chopping tools) and formed the chief lithic tradition in the sub-Himalayan region.

• Acheulian culture(named after the site of St. Acheul in France): Hand-axes and cleavers, popular tool making culture in peninsular India. initially called "Madrasian" Culture as hand axes were first discovered near erstwhile Madras in 1863.

Mohapatra argues these were part of the same tradition, with differences due to ecological setting and raw material availability.

Chopper-Chopping Tool and Hand-Axe

Choppers are unifacial, chopping-tools are bifacial, both used for chopping. Hand-axes are core-tools produced by knocking off flakes. Acheulian hand-axes are symmetrical in shape.

Raw Material

Raw material varied regionally. Quartzite was common in hill ranges, basalt in Maharashtra, and limestone in Hungsi, Karnataka. Tools show remarkable similarity in form and techniques despite being made of different materials.

The Middle Palaeolithic Period

This period shows further advancement in tool-making, using medium-sized flakes. Tools were thinner and smaller, made of agate, jasper, and chert. Chopper-chopping tools became extinct, hand axes and cleavers became rare.

The assemblages comprise scrapers, borers, and points. The Levallosian technique(named after a French site) was predominant, involving core dressing to obtain a flat surface and producing flakes of desired size.

Nevasa Culture

Flake tools were first identified by H.D. Sankalia in 1956 at Nevasa, Maharashtra, and named "Nevasa Culture." Subsequent excavations showed these tools were not a local phenomena and formed a general feature of the Middle Paleolithic culture.

The Upper Palaeolithic Period

This period shows further reduction in tool size and weight. Flakes and burins dominate this phase-Burins are chisel-like tools made on blade-like flakes, having a sharp and straight cutting age similar to a screw driver, yielding smaller tools besides causing less wastage.The main advantage of this period were that lighter tools could be carried over long distances. Soft, fine-grained stones were preferred as raw material, evident from sites in Belan valley.

The Sites

• North: Riwat (Soan valley) has the earliest pebble tools. Other sites include Jhelum basin(Dina and Jalalpur) Beas and Banganga river terraces(Himachal Pradesh) , and Ladakh and Pahelgaon in Kashmir Valley.

• Sind: Sukkur-Rohri hills have Acheulian tools. Sanghao Cave near Peshawar has Middle and Upper Palaeolithic evidence.

• Rajasthan: Evidence of paleolithic culture comes both from marwar and Mewar. Didwana (Nagaur) where a neaby site of singhi Talav has successive layers of Lower to Upper Palaeolithic material.

• Western India: Tools made on agate and jasper in South Gujarat, Saurashtra, and Kutch. Nevasa(on Pravara stream) and Patne (Maharashtra) are important sites. Patne shows evolution from Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic; a disc-bead of ostrich egg-shell was found as upper Paleolithic remains.

• Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka and Adamgarh have evidence from Early Palaeolithic to Mesolithic. These rock shelters contain a good number of rocl paintings considered of mesolithic period, some belonging to upper paleolithic. Baghor has Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic tools.

• Uttar Pradesh: Belan Valley has a complete Stone Age sequence from lower paleolithic to neolithic. Chopani mando has artifacts from Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic.

• Eastern India: Palaeolithic tools in Bengal (Birbhum, Burdwan, Purulia, Midnapore). Orissa (Mayurbhanj, Sundargarh, Sambalpur, Bolangi) and Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Hazaribagh) have Palaeolithic artifacts. Paisara (Bihar) has Acheulian working floors of a factory site containing finished and semifinished tools.

• Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Chittoor, and Nalagonda have Palaeolithic material. Muchchatha Chintamani Gavi cave in Kurnool has earliest bone tools and hearth fire traces.

• Karnataka: Malaprabha-Ghataprabha region (Krishna tributary) has Palaeolithic sites like Hunsgi and Kovalli. Kovalli is considered an open air factory site.

• North Tamil Nadu: Attirampakkam has the "Madrasian" Lower Palaeolithic industry.

Material Culture

Widespread Palaeolithic settlements indicate a widespread culture, thus is not localised. Sites were near rivers or hill terraces for easily availability of water, food, and raw materials. Seasonal camps existed; Bhimbetka was occupied during monsoons and winter, while in summer, they preferred to camp in the open(acc Vn Mishra) People lived in groups of $20$ to $25$ (called band), moving based on seasonal availability, not far away from their base.

Dwellings-Subsistence

Evidence of dwellings is limited. Slab-like pieces at Hunsgi (Karnataka) and post-holes at Paisara (Bihar) suggest thatched roof-like structures. Animal food from hunting/scavenging was the main diet, supplemented by plant food.

Craft Activity

Craft activity is seen in finer stone tools and better raw material selection. Hunsgi and Kovali(Karnataka), Paisara(Bihar), are termed "factory sites" as they yield evidence for both finished and unfinished tools, indicating that they might supply tools to other areas, signifying some inter-regional contact.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

Data is limited. At Baghor (Madhya Pradesh),in upper paleolithic age, a rubble-built platform with a triangular stone was found, possibly linked to the worship of mother- goddess. A bone object from upper paleolithic age found in Lohanda Nala (Belan Valley) is interpreted as a mother goddess figurine by GS Sharma, while Wakankar and Bednarik call it a harpoon.

Artistic Activity

evidence consist of An engraved ostrich egg-shell fragment with crisscross designs was found at Patne, Maharashtra. Earliest rock-paintings at Bhimbetka might belong to the Upper Palaeolithic Age, acc VS Wakankar.

CONCLUSION: