American National Govt. Ch 1-7 Review

Chapter 1 - Gateway to American Democracy

Vocab

autocracy System of government in which the power to govern is concentrated in the hands of an individual ruler.
capitalism Economic system in which businesses and key industries are privately owned and in which individuals, acting on their own or with others, are free to create businesses.
checks and balances Government structure that authorizes each branch of government (executive, legislative, and judicial) to share powers with the other branches, thereby holding some scrutiny of and control over the other branches.
civic interest Concern for the well-being of society and the nation as a whole.
civil society Voluntary organizations that allow communities to flourish.
conservatives Individuals who distrust government, believing that free markets offer better ways than government involvement to improve people’s livelihood. In the social sphere, conservatives have more faith in government’s ability to enforce traditional values.
constitutional system System of government in which people set up and agree on the basic rules and procedures that will govern them.
democracy System of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them either directly or indirectly through elected representatives.
direct democracy Form of democracy in which political power is exercised directly by citizens.
egalitarianism Belief in human equality that disdains inherited titles of nobility and inherited wealth.
equality Idea that all individuals are equal in their moral worth and so must be equal in treatment under the law and have equal access to the decision-making process.
equality of opportunity Expectation that citizens may not be discriminated against based on race, gender, or national background and that every citizen should have an equal chance to succeed in life.
equality of outcome Expectation that equality is achieved if results are comparable for all citizens regardless of race, gender, or national background or that such groups are proportionally represented in measures of success in life.
executive branch The branch of the federal government that executes the laws.
faction Defined by James Madison as any group that places its own interests above the aggregate interests of society.
federalism System of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between national and state governments.
Founders The people who were involved in establishing the United States, whether at the time of the Declaration of Independence or the writing of the Constitution.
Framers The people who were involved in writing the Constitution.
Generation Z Generation born from 1997, onward.
individualism Set of beliefs holding that people, and not government, are responsible for their own well-being.
judicial branch The branch of the federal government that interprets the laws.
legislative branch The branch of the federal government that makes the laws.
liberals Individuals who have faith in government to improve people’s lives, believing that private efforts are insufficient. In the social sphere, liberals usually support diverse lifestyles and tend to oppose any government action that seeks to shape personal choices.
libertarians Those who generally believe that government should refrain from acting to regulate either the economy or moral values.
liberty Political value that cherishes freedom from an arbitrary exercise of power that constricts individual choice.
majoritarian System of policy making in which those with a numerical majority hold authority.
majority rule Idea that a numerical majority of a group should hold the power to make decisions binding on the whole group; a simple majority.
Millennials Generation born between 1981 and 1996.
minority rights Idea that the majority should not be able to take certain fundamental rights away from those in the minority.
moderates Individuals who are in the middle of the ideological spectrum and do not hold consistently strong views about whether government should be involved in people’s lives.
monarchy System of government that assigns power to a single person who inherits that position and rules until death.
natural (unalienable) rights Rights that every individual has and that government cannot legitimately take away.
oligarchy System of government in which the power to govern is concentrated in the hands of a powerful few, usually wealthy individuals.
order Political value in which the rule of law is followed and does not permit actions that infringe on the well-being of others.
party identification Psychological attachment to a political party; partisanship.
pluralist A political arrangement where power is spread across groups and individuals that yields shared governing.
political culture A shared way of thinking about community and government and the relationship between them.
political equality The idea that people should have equal amounts of influence in the political system.
political ideology Set of coherent political beliefs that offers a philosophy for thinking about the scope of government.
political parties Broad coalitions of interests organized to win elections in order to enact a commonly supported set of public policies.
politics Process by which people make decisions about who gets what, when, and how.
populists Those who oppose concentrated wealth and adhere to traditional moral values.
power elite Small handful of decision makers who hold authority over a large set of issues.
private goods Goods or benefits provided by government in which most of the benefit falls to the individuals, families, or companies receiving them.
public goods Goods or benefits provided by government from which everyone benefits and from which no one can be excluded.
public policy Intentional actions of government designed to achieve a goal.
representative democracy Form of democracy in which citizens elect public officials to make political decisions and formulate laws on their behalf.
republic Form of government in which power derives from citizens, but public officials make policy and govern according to existing law.
responsiveness Idea that government should implement laws and policies that reflect the wishes of the public and any changes in those wishes.
rule of law Legal system with known rules that are enforced equally against all people.
self-government Rule by the people.
self-interest Concern for one’s own advantage and well-being.
separation of powers Government structure in which authority is divided among branches (executive, legislative, and judicial), with each holding separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility.
social contract Theory that government has only the authority accorded it by the consent of the governed.
socialism Economic system in which the government owns major industries.

Notes

the successes we have achieved and the obstacles we face in establishing a “more perfect union”

American democracy offers many gateways to participation because, at its core, American government is about individuals and self-governance. There are also gates against public participation—obstacles to influence, institutional controls that limit access, and powerful interests that seem to block the people’s will. To be an engaged and productive citizen, you need to take advantage of the gateways but also know how to navigate around the gates.

how the constitutional system balances liberty and order

Democracy is self-government. In the American constitutional system, the people set up and agree on the basic rules and procedures that will govern them. The American constitutional system works to protect both liberty and order. The Constitution sets up a governmental structure with built-in constraints on power (gates) and multiple points of access to power (gateways). Power in American government is divided among three branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) and between the national government and the states.

the political values and ideologies Americans share

American political culture favors individualism, and the U.S. economic system favors capitalism. American citizens may lean conservative or liberal, but most are moderates. With a government designed to constrain power and the popular will, and a citizenry divided into different perspectives and prizing individualism, the development of public policy is difficult and complex.

American democracy in terms of responsiveness and equality

One way to evaluate whether public policy is serving the people of the United States and to judge whether American democracy is working is to measure government responsiveness and citizen equality.

the responsibilities of individuals in a democracy

Civic interest pushes people to help others and become active participants in a democracy. Education is a fundamental component of democratic society and a stepping-stone to economic advancement.

Chapter 2 - The Constitution

Vocab

amendment Formal Process of changing the Constitution
Antifederalists Those who opposed the new proposed Constitution during the ratification period.
Articles of Confederation Initial governing authority of the United States, 1781–88.
Bill of Rights First ten amendments to the Constitution, which provide basic political rights.
Connecticut Compromise Compromise on legislative representation whereby the lower chamber is based on population, and the upper chamber provides equal representation to the states.
constitution Document or set of documents that establishes the basic rules and procedures for how a society shall be governed.
Constitutional Convention Meeting in 1787 at which twelve states intended to revise the Articles of Confederation but ended up proposing an entirely new Constitution.
Declaration of Independence The 1776 document declaring American independence from Great Britain and calling for equality, human rights, and citizen participation.
Electoral College The presidential electors, selected to represent the votes of their respective states, who meet every four years to cast the electoral votes for president and vice president.
enumerated powers Powers expressly granted to Congress by the Constitution.
Federalists Initially, those who supported the Constitution during the ratification period
general welfare clause Gives Congress the power to tax to provide for the general welfare (Article I, Section 8).
implied powers Powers not expressly granted to Congress but added through the necessary and proper clause.
judicial review Authority of courts to declare laws passed by Congress and acts of the executive branch to be unconstitutional.
necessary and proper clause Gives Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper to the powers enumerated in Article I, Section 8.
three-fifths compromise Compromise over slavery at the Constitutional Convention that granted states extra representation in the House of Representatives based on their number of slaves at the ratio of three-fifths.
veto Authority of the president to block legislation passed by Congress.

Chapter 3 - Federalism

Vocab

commerce clause Gives Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, with Indian tribes, and among the various states (Article I, Section 8).
concurrent powers Powers held by both the national and state governments in a federal system.
confederal system System of government in which ultimate authority rests with the regional (for example, state) governments.
Court-packing plan President Franklin Roosevelt’s proposal to add new justices to the Supreme Court so that the Court would uphold his policies.
dual federalism Doctrine holding that state governments and the federal government have almost completely separate functions.
fugitive slave clause Required states to return runaway slaves
McCulloch v. Maryland The 1819 Supreme Court decision upholding the right of Congress to create a bank.
Missouri Plan Process for selecting state judges whereby the original nomination is by appointment, and subsequent retention is by a retention election.
nullification Right of states to invalidate acts of Congress they believe to be illegal.
reserve powers Powers retained by the states under the Constitution.
sanctuary jurisdictions A state or local government that enacts laws or policies that limit its cooperation with federal immigration enforcement officials.
secede To formally withdraw from a nation-state.
states’ rights View that states have strong independent authority to resist federal rules under the Constitution
supremacy clause Makes federal law supreme over state laws (Article VI).
unitary system System of government in which ultimate authority rests with the national government.

Chapter 4 Civil Liberties

civil liberties Those rights, such as freedom of speech and religion, that are so fundamental that they are outside the authority of government to regulate.
clear and present danger test First Amendment test that requires the state to prove there is a high likelihood that the speech in question would lead to a danger that Congress has a right to prevent.
compelling interest test Standard frequently used by the Supreme Court in civil liberties cases to determine whether a state has a compelling interest for infringing on a right and whether the law is narrowly drawn to meet that interest.
content-neutral Free speech doctrine that allows certain types of regulation of speech, as long as the restriction does not favor one side or another of a controversy.
establishment clause First Amendment clause prohibiting governmental establishment of religion.
exclusionary rule Supreme Court rule declaring that evidence found in violation of the Fourth Amendment cannot be used at trial.
free exercise clause First Amendment clause protecting the free exercise of religion.
incorporate To apply provisions of the Bill of Rights to the states.
Lawrence v. Texas2003 Supreme Court case extending the right to privacy to homosexual behavior.
Lemon test Test for determining whether aid to religion violates the establishment clause.
marketplace of ideas Idea that the government should not restrict the expression of ideas because the people are capable of accepting good ideas and rejecting bad ones.
Miller test Supreme Court test for determining whether material is obscene.
political tolerance Willingness of people to put up with ideas with which they disagree.
prior restraint Government restrictions on freedom of the press that prevent material from being published.
right to privacy Constitutional right inferred by the Supreme Court that has been used to protect unlisted rights such as sexual privacy and reproductive rights, plus the right to end life-sustaining medical treatment.
Roe v. Wade 1973 Supreme Court case extending the right to privacy to abortion.
selective incorporation Doctrine used by the Supreme Court to make those provisions of the Bill of Rights that are fundamental rights binding on the states.
symbolic speech Actions, such as burning the flag, that convey a political message without spoken words.
valid secular purpose Supreme Court test that allows states to ban activities that infringe on religious practices as long as the state has a nonreligious rationale for prohibiting the behavior.
writ of habeas corpus Right of individuals who have been arrested and jailed to go before a judge, who determines whether their detention is legal.

Chapter 5 - Civil Rights

Vocab

Black Lives Matter Movement that grew out of the perceived discounting of black lives by police and juries.
Brown v. Board of Education The 1954 Supreme Court decision striking down segregated schools.
citizenship Full-fledged membership in a nation.
civil rights Set of rights centered around the concept of equal treatment that government is obliged to protect.
Civil Rights Act Prohibits discrimination in employment, education, and places of public accommodation (1964).
Dred Scott v. Sandford The 1857 Supreme Court decision declaring that blacks could not be citizens and Congress could not ban slavery in the territories.
Equal Pay Act Prohibits different pay for males and females for the same work (1963).
equal protection clause Prevents states from denying any person the equal protection of the laws (Fourteenth Amendment).
Jim Crow laws Southern laws that established strict segregation of the races and gave their name to the segregation era.
poll taxes Tax on voting; prohibited by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964).
private discrimination Discrimination by private individuals or businesses.
public discrimination Discrimination by national, state, or local governments.
Reconstruction The period from 1865 to 1877 in which the former Confederate states gained readmission to the Union and the federal government passed laws to help the emancipated slaves.
separate-but-equal doctrine Supreme Court doctrine that upheld segregation as long as there were equivalent facilities for blacks.
state action Action by a state, as opposed to a private person, that constitutes discrimination and therefore is an equal protection violation.
Stonewall riot Street protest in 1969 by gay patrons against a police raid of a gay bar in New York; the protest is credited with launching the gay rights movement.
Voting Rights Act Gives the federal government the power to prevent discrimination in voting rights (1965).
women’s suffrage movement Movement to grant women the right to vote.

Chapter 6 - Public Opinion

Vocab

approval rating Job performance evaluation for the president, Congress, or other public official or institution that is generated by public opinion polls and is typically reported as a percentage.
confidence interval Statistical range with a given probability that takes random error into account.
efficacy Extent to which people believe their actions can affect public affairs and the actions of government.
exit polls Polls that survey a sample of voters immediately after exiting the voting booth to predict the outcome of the election before the ballots are officially counted.
gender gap Differences in the political attitudes and behavior of men and women.
Independents Individuals who do not affiliate with either of the major political parties.
levels of conceptualization Measure of how ideologically coherent individuals are in their political evaluations.
nonattitudes Sources of error in public opinion polls in which individuals feel obliged to give opinions when they are unaware of the issue or have no opinions about it.
polarization Condition in which differences between parties and/or the public are so stark that disagreement breaks out, fueling attacks and controversy.
political trust Extent to which people believe the government acts in their best interests.
public opinion Aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs about certain issues or officials.
push polls Polls that are designed to manipulate the opinions of those being polled.
random sample Method of selection that gives everyone who might be selected to participate in a poll an equal chance to be included.
rationality Acting in a way that is consistent with one’s self-interest.
representative sample Method of selection that allows a sample to be representative of the entire population, ensuring that key groups are accurately reflected in the sample.
socialization Impact and influence of one’s social environment on the views and attitudes one carries in life, a primary source of political attitudes.
tracking polls Polls that seek to gauge changes of opinion of the same sample size over a period of time; they are common during the closing months of presidential elections.

Chapter 7 - The News and Social Media

Vocab

actual malice Supreme Court test for libel of a public figure, in which the plaintiff must prove that the publisher knew the material was false or acted with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false.
agenda setting Ability of the media to affect the way people view issues, people, or events by controlling which stories are shown and which are not.
censorship The suppression of words, images, or ideas that are considered “offensive” or “dangerous” by a government or private group.
fake news Fabricated news that has no basis in evidence and is often designed to mimic traditional news sources, but is not factually accurate.
Federalist Papers Series of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay arguing for the ratification of the Constitution; today a leading source for understanding the Constitution.
framing Ability of the media to influence public perception of issues by constructing the issue or discussion of a subject in a certain way.
hard news Political news coverage, traditionally found in the printed press, that is more fact-based, opposed to more interpretive narratives and commentary.
libel Publishing false and damaging statements about another person.
mass media News sources, including newspapers, television, radio, and the Internet, whose purpose is to provide a large audience with information about the nation and the world.
microtargeting A marketing technique that employs user data to identify interests of specific individuals or groups and inform advertisers what message is most effective for those users.
minimal effects model View of the media’s impact as marginal because most people seek news reports to reinforce beliefs already held rather than to develop new ones.
muckraking Journalistic practice of investigative reporting that seeks to uncover corruption and wrongdoing.
news media Subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day, gathered and reported by journalists.
not-so-minimal effects model View of the media’s impact as substantial, occurring by agenda setting, framing, and priming.
penny press Newspapers sold for a penny, initiating an era in which the press began to rely on circulation and advertising for income and not on political parties.
priming Process whereby the media influence the criteria the public uses to make decisions.
propaganda model Extreme view of the media’s role in society, arguing that the press serves the interest of the government only, driving what the public thinks about important issues.
seditious libel Conduct or language that incites rebellion against the authority of a state.
selective exposure Process whereby people secure information from sources that agree with them, thus reinforcing their beliefs.
soft news News stories focused less on facts and policies than on sensationalizing secondary issues or on less serious subjects of the entertainment world.
watchdog Role of the press in monitoring government actions.
yellow journalism Style of journalism in the late-nineteenth century characterized by sensationalism intended to capture readers’ attention and increase circulation.