4. Civil Rights and Eisenhower

Civil Rights Movement Overview

• Battle Cry: "We shall overcome" is the anthem of the Civil Rights Movement.

• Historical Context: The Civil Rights Movement emerged as a response to systemic racism and segregation established after the Civil War.

Civil War Amendments

• Thirteenth Amendment: Ended slavery.

• Fourteenth Amendment: Granted citizenship to all born in the U.S., ensuring equal protection under the law.

• Fifteenth Amendment: Granted African American men the right to vote.

• Failure of Reconstruction: After 1877, Southern states implemented Jim Crow laws, establishing segregation across all public facilities while finding loopholes to evade the rights granted by these amendments.

Jim Crow Laws and Legal Challenges

• Institutionalized Segregation: Segregation manifested through laws and policies; facilities were separated based on race (schools, transportation, public spaces).

• Voting Barriers: Literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation tactics further obstructed African Americans' voting rights.

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Established the doctrine of "separate but equal," legitimizing racial segregation.

Diverging Leadership in the African American Community

• Booker T. Washington: Advocated for accommodation and gradual economic advancement for African Americans.

• W. E. B. Du Bois: Demanded immediate equality and civil rights, founding the NAACP which remains influential today.

• Marcus Garvey: Promoted black nationalism and the Back to Africa movement in the 1920s.

• Types of Segregation:

  • De Jure Segregation: Legal segregation enforced by laws (primarily in the South).

  • De Facto Segregation: Customary segregation existing through social norms (seen in the North and West).

Post-WWII Civil Rights Momentum

• WWII Influence: The Double V Campaign promoted victory over fascism abroad and discrimination at home.

• Truman's Civil Rights Efforts: After WWII, President Harry S. Truman supported civil rights initiatives, establishing the Civil Rights Commission and desegregating the military.

Eisenhower's Civil Rights Policies

• Eisenhower's Stance: Initially reluctant to engage deeply with civil rights issues, but his presidency coincided with significant civil rights advancements.

• NAACP Actions: In the 1940s, the NAACP began challenging segregation in higher education.

• Warren Court: Chief Justice Earl Warren, a significant figure in civil rights advocacy, presided during landmark cases that shaped civil rights.

Key Supreme Court Case

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954):

  • NAACP's lawsuit filed on behalf of Linda Brown against the Topeka school board.

  • Argued by Thurgood Marshall, the case challenged the constitutionality of segregation in public schools.

  • Ruling: Court determined that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, overruling Plessy v. Ferguson.

  • Ordered desegregation "with all deliberate speed," marking a significant victory for the Civil Rights Movement.

Crisis at Little Rock

• Event: Arkansas Governor Orville Faubus resisted enforcing desegregation following Brown v. Board of Education.

• Little Rock Nine: A group of nine African American students attempted to integrate Central High School.

  • Faubus deployed state troopers to prevent their entry.

  • Eisenhower intervened by sending federal troops to ensure the students could attend school safely.

• Outcome: Fueled further civil rights activism despite Southern resistance and closure of public schools by whites.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

• Rosa Parks' Act: December 1, 1955 – Parks arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat.

• Collective Action: Inspired by Parks, African Americans organized a boycott against segregated buses, effectively disrupting the city's transportation system.

• Martin Luther King Jr.: Emerged as a prominent leader during the boycott, advocating for nonviolent resistance.

  • The boycott lasted over 400 days, leading to the Supreme Court ruling against bus segregation in 1956.

Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC

• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC): Founded by King in January 1957 to coordinate nonviolent protests.

• Civil Disobedience: Advocated peaceful resistance, inspired by Gandhi and other nonviolent philosophies.

• Sit-Ins: Student-led protests aimed at desegregating public facilities, starting with the Greensboro sit-in in 1960.

  • Took place at Woolworth's lunch counter, leading to broader participation and eventual success in desegregating lunch counters nationwide.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

• Formation: Emerged from student-led protests, focusing on nonviolent methods of civil disobedience.

• Influence: Promoted activism among young Americans, garnering significant media attention and public sympathy during confrontations.

• Legacy: Helped catalyze the larger Civil Rights Movement, continuing efforts to dismantle systemic racism.