Teachers Discovering Computers: Integrating Technology in a Changing World (8th Edition) Study Guide

Course Overview and Textbook Features

• Core Focus of the Textbook:

  • Focuses on technology integration, tablet-based learning, app-based learning, and teaching today's digital generation.
  • Prepares preservice and inservice educators to align with the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) Standards for Teachers (ISTE Standards•T) and Students (ISTE Standards•S).

• Pedagogical and Digital Resources:

  • Computer Concepts CourseMate: Provides web-based curriculum-specific content, interactive learning games, practice tests, video demonstrations, and an interactive timeline of computer history from 1937 to the present.
  • Critical Thinking Exploration: End-of-chapter feature addressing ongoing debates in K-12 education (e.g., teacher performance evaluation, flipped classrooms, STEM/STEAM, BYOD, MOOCs, parental involvement).
  • Apps Corner: Presents app resources and integration strategies across subject areas (Personal/Entertainment, Creativity, Productivity, Language Arts, Math, Science, Social Studies, Health/Fitness).
  • Digital Media Corner: Focuses on video, audio, digital storytelling, screencasting, and web authoring tools.
  • Assistive Technologies Corner: Outlines hardware, software, and peripheral solutions for K-12 students with physical, cognitive, or sensory challenges.
  • In the Lab: Hands-on productivity and curriculum integration exercises using word processing, spreadsheets, presentation graphics, and desktop publishing.

• Technology Platform Coverage:

  • Addresses both Apple Macintosh (Mac OS) and Microsoft Windows (PC) environments, reflecting the dual-platform reality of K-12 school districts.

Chapter 1: Integrating Educational Technology into the Curriculum

• Curriculum-Specific Learning (Discipline-Specific Learning):

  • Definition: Learning how to apply teaching principles, knowledge, and ideas to authentic and practical classroom lessons and projects that directly benefit student learning in specific subject areas.
  • Transition from traditional 20th-century teacher-centered instruction to student-centered, technology-enriched learning environments.

• Traditional vs. New Learning Environments:

  • Teacher-centered instruction $\rightarrow$ Student-centered learning.
  • Single-sense stimulation $\rightarrow$ Multisensory stimulation.
  • Single-path progression $\rightarrow$ Multipath progression.
  • Single media $\rightarrow$ Multimedia.
  • Isolated work $\rightarrow$ Collaborative work.
  • Information delivery $\rightarrow$ Information exchange.
  • Passive learning $\rightarrow$ Active/exploratory/inquiry-based learning.
  • Factual, knowledge-based learning $\rightarrow$ Critical thinking and informed decision making.
  • Reactive response $\rightarrow$ Proactive/planned action.
  • Isolated, artificial context $\rightarrow$ Authentic, real-world context.

• Literacy Definitions:

  • Computer Literacy: Current knowledge and understanding of computers, mobile devices, and their uses.
  • Information Literacy (Information Fluency): The ability to find, analyze, evaluate, use, and communicate information gathered from multiple sources to make decisions or take specific actions.
  • Integration Literacy: The ability to use computers, mobile devices, digital media, and other technologies combined with a variety of teaching and learning strategies to enhance student learning, matching appropriate technologies to specific learning objectives and outcomes.

• Fundamental Computer Concepts:

  • Computer: An electronic device operating under the control of instructions stored in its memory that accepts data, processes data according to specified rules, produces results, and stores the results for future use.
  • Data: A collection of unorganized facts (words, numbers, images, sounds).
  • Information: Data that is organized, meaningful, and useful (reports, receipts, grade summaries).
  • Information Processing Cycle: The sequence of Input $\rightarrow$ Process $\rightarrow$ Output $\rightarrow$ Storage.
  • Hardware: The physical electronic and mechanical equipment making up a computer.
  • Software: The series of detailed instructions that tells hardware how to perform tasks.

• Evolution of Computers and Digital Media:

  • Progression: Telegraph $\rightarrow$ Telephone $\rightarrow$ Radio $\rightarrow$ Television $\rightarrow$ Mainframes $\rightarrow$ Personal Computers (early 1980s) $\rightarrow$ Age of Convergence.
  • Age of Convergence: The merging of telephone, television, and computing technologies into interactive, mobile devices driven by high-speed processors and wireless networks.
  • Digital Media: Technologies allowing users to create new forms of interaction, expression, communication, and entertainment in digital format, striving to emulate face-to-face communication in virtual and online environments.

• Categories of Computers:

  • Personal Computers (PCs): Perform input, processing, output, and storage independently. Includes Windows PCs and Apple Macintosh (Mac) systems.
  • Historical milestone: IBM Personal Computer released in 1981; Apple Macintosh introduced in 1984 featuring a graphical user interface and mouse.
  • Desktop Computers: Designed so the system unit, input, output, and storage fit entirely on or under a desk.
  • Mobile Computers & Mobile Devices:
  • Notebook Computer (Laptop): Lightweight, portable computer with built-in screen and keyboard.
  • Tablet Computer (Tablet): Letter-sized or smaller portable computer controlled primarily via a touch screen (e.g., Apple iPad, introduced in early 2010).
  • Netbook (Mini-Notebook): Small, lightweight, low-cost computer optimized for wireless communication and Internet access.
  • Smartphone: Internet-enabled phone offering personal information management (PIM) functions, e-mail, Web browsing, app execution, text/instant/picture/video messaging, and media playback. Process of exchanging data between a smartphone and PC is called syncing.
  • E-book Reader (E-reader): Handheld device used primarily for reading digital books (e-books).
  • Game Consoles: Mobile or stationary computing devices designed for single- or multiplayer video games (e.g., Nintendo Wii, Sony PlayStation, Microsoft Xbox). Wii utilizes kinetic motion interfaces to develop psychomotor and cognitive skills.
  • Servers, Supercomputers, and Embedded Computers:
  • Server: Controls access to network hardware, software, and centralized storage.
  • Supercomputer: Fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer, capable of processing trillions of instructions per second.
  • Embedded Computer: Special-purpose computer functioning as a component inside a larger product (e.g., automobiles, home appliances).

• Professional and Educational Organizations:

  • ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education): Leading non-profit organization promoting technology to improve teaching and learning; developed accreditation standards for NCATE (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education).
  • ISTE Standards for Teachers (ISTE Standards•T):
  1. Facilitate and Inspire Student Learning and Creativity.
  2. Design and Develop Digital-Age Learning Experiences and Assessments.
  3. Model Digital-Age Work and Learning.
  4. Promote and Model Digital Citizenship and Responsibility.
  5. Engage in Professional Growth and Leadership.
  • ISTE Standards for Students (ISTE Standards•S):
  1. Creativity and Innovation.
  2. Communication and Collaboration.
  3. Research and Information Fluency.
  4. Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making.
  5. Digital Citizenship.
  6. Technology Operations and Concepts.
  • ISTE Standards for Administrators (ISTE Standards•A): Categories include Visionary Leadership, Digital Age Learning Culture, Excellence in Professional Practice, and Systemic Improvement.

• Global Workplace & 21st Century Skills:

  • The World Is Flat (Thomas Friedman): Describes how technology and global high-speed telecommunications flatten the economic playing field, enabling global competition and collaboration.
  • Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21 Framework):
  • Core Subjects & 21st Century Themes: Global awareness, financial/economic/business/entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy, health literacy.
  • Learning & Innovation Skills: Creativity/innovation, critical thinking/problem solving, communication/collaboration.
  • Information, Media, and Technology Skills: Information literacy, media literacy, ICT (Information, Communications, and Technology) literacy.
  • Life & Career Skills: Flexibility/adaptability, initiative/self-direction, social/cross-cultural skills, productivity/accountability, leadership/responsibility.

• Characteristics of Digital Students (Digital Natives vs. Digital Immigrants):

  • Coined by Marc Prensky: Digital Natives (today's youth born into the digital age) vs. Digital Immigrants (older generations who adapted to technology later in life).
  • Characteristics: Hypercommunicators, multitaskers, parallel processors, visual/graphics-first learners, random access (hyperlinked) thinkers, twitch-speed processors, demand instant gratification/rewards, and require relevant, fun, hands-on learning.

• Specific Types of Literacies:

  • Media Literacy: Ability to create, develop, analyze, and question information across all media forms (videos, Web, advertising).
  • Data Literacy: Ability to view, manipulate, analyze, and interpret numeric and statistical data using visual tools.

• ARCS Motivational Model (John M. Keller, 1983):

  • Attention: Capture student curiosity through novel, surprising, or multisensory stimuli.
  • Relevance: Connect instruction to student experiences, values, and real-life needs.
  • Challenge/Confidence: Set appropriate difficulty levels to foster positive expectations and self-efficacy.
  • Satisfaction/Success: Provide intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, feedback, and opportunities to showcase achievement.

• Professional Teaching Portfolio (ePortfolio / e-Portfolio / eFolio):

  • Definition: A digital collection of evidence documenting an educator's professional development, growth, philosophy, and accomplishments over time.
  • Core Components: Introduction/personal statement, cover letter, résumé/vita, philosophy of education, teaching licenses/certifications, academic transcripts, standards-aligned lesson plans, authentic assessment samples, student work artifacts, technology integration evidence, parent correspondence samples, letters of recommendation, and reflective essays.
  • Storage & Systems: Managed via platforms like LiveText, TaskStream, Chalk & Wire, or self-hosted Web sites/apps, backed up across multiple media (hard drive, USB flash drive, cloud).

• Critical Thinking Exploration: Teacher Performance, Evaluation, and Accountability:

  • Federal Race to the Top program incentivizes state evaluation reforms.
  • Value-Added Modeling (VAM): Evaluates teacher effectiveness by measuring student standardized test score growth from year to year compared to peers.
  • Teacher Incentive Funds (TIF): Grants providing financial compensation based on teacher performance and student achievement gains.
  • Concerns: Over-emphasis on "teaching to the test," potential unfairness to teachers in underperforming or high-poverty schools, and stress on educators.

Special Feature 1: Guide to Professional, State, and Federal Educational Web Sites

• Major Professional Educational Organizations:

  • AAIDD: American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (www.aaidd.org).
  • AASA: American Association of School Administrators (www.aasa.org).
  • AFT: American Federation of Teachers (www.aft.org).
  • ASCA: American School Counselor Association (www.schoolcounselor.org).
  • ACTE: Association for Career and Technical Education (www.acteonline.org).
  • AECT: Association for Educational Communications and Technology (www.aect.org).
  • AMLE: Association for Middle Level Education (www.amle.org).
  • ASCD: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (www.ascd.org).
  • AACE: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (www.aace.org).
  • CUE: Computer-Using Educators (www.cue.org).
  • CoSN: Consortium for School Networking (www.cosn.org).
  • CEC: Council for Exceptional Children (www.cec.sped.org).
  • EdWeek: Education Week (www.edweek.org).
  • ISTE: International Society for Technology in Education (www.iste.org).
  • Learning Forward: Professional learning organization (www.learningforward.org).
  • NAEA: National Art Education Association (www.naea-reston.org).
  • NAME: National Association for Multicultural Education (www.nameorg.org).
  • NafME: National Association for Music Education (www.nafme.org).
  • NASPE: National Association for Sport and Physical Education (www.aahperd.org/naspe).
  • NAEYC: National Association for the Education of Young Children (www.naeyc.org).
  • NAESP: National Association of Elementary School Principals (www.naesp.org).
  • NASSP: National Association of Secondary School Principals (www.nassp.org).
  • NBEA: National Business Education Association (www.nbea.org).
  • NCSS: National Council for the Social Studies (www.socialstudies.org).
  • NCTE: National Council of Teachers of English (www.ncte.org).
  • NCTM: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (www.nctm.org).
  • NEA: National Education Association (www.nea.org).
  • NHSA: National High School Association (www.nhsa.net).
  • PTA: National Parent Teacher Association (www.pta.org).
  • NSBA: National School Boards Association (www.nsba.org).
  • NSTA: National Science Teachers Association (www.nsta.org).
  • PDK: Phi Delta Kappa (www.pdkintl.org).
  • Rural School and Community Trust: (www.ruraledu.org).

• Federal Government Educational Web Sites:

  • FREE (Federal Resources for Educational Excellence): Over 1,500 teaching/learning resources supported by federal agencies (free.ed.gov).
  • ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center): Nationwide education database (eric.ed.gov).
  • ED.gov: U.S. Department of Education (www.ed.gov).
  • EDSITEment: National Endowment for the Humanities catalog (edsitement.neh.gov).
  • NASA Education: Aeronautics and space science resources (www.nasa.gov).
  • Library of Congress: Digital primary sources and historical collections (www.loc.gov).
  • Kids.gov: Official U.S. government portal for kids (kids.usa.gov).

Chapter 2: Communications, Networks, the Internet, and the World Wide Web

• Communications Infrastructure & Components:

  • Communications (Telecommunications): The process in which two or more computers or devices transfer data, instructions, and information.
  • Basic System Components: Sending device, receiving device, communications devices (modems, routers), communications channel (transmission media), and communications software.
  • Transmission Media:
  • Twisted-pair cable: Plastic-coated copper wires twisted together.
  • Coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, microwave transmission, communications satellites, wireless media.
  • Signals and Modems:
  • Analog Signal: Continuous electrical wave.
  • Digital Signal: Individual electrical pulses (0s and 1s).
  • Modem (Modulate/Demodulate): Converts digital signals to analog for transmission over analog lines, and reconverts analog to digital at the receiving end.
  • Types: 56K dial-up modem, Cable modem (broadband over CATV network), DSL modem (digital subscriber line over copper phone lines).

• Communications Networks:

  • Local Area Network (LAN): Network covering a limited geographical area (school, building, office).
  • Wireless LAN (WLAN): LAN using radio waves based on IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standards.
  • Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers a large geographical region (city, district, state) combining LANs over public/private channels.
  • Home Network: Connects multiple home computers/devices to share Internet, files, and peripherals (wired or Wi-Fi).
  • Server: Centralized computer that manages network resources and data storage.
  • Broadband Access: High-speed, continuous Internet connections (Cable, DSL, Satellite, Fiber, 3G/4G cellular) offering high bandwidth.

• History & Mechanics of the Internet:

  • Internet (the Net): Worldwide collection of interconnected networks.
  • History:
  • 1969: ARPANET established by Department of Defense ARPA with 4 original hosts: UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara, University of Utah.
  • 1984: Over 1,000 host computers on ARPANET.
  • 1986: NSFnet created by National Science Foundation, serving as the primary Internet backbone until 1995.
  • Internet2 (I2): High-speed research and education network linking over 200 U.S. universities and 115 corporations.
  • Packet Switching: Data is divided into small pieces called packets (containing data, recipient/origin addresses, sequence info), routed along the fastest path via routers, and reassembled at the destination.
  • TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The foundational communications protocol defining packet switching on the Internet.
  • Internet Access Providers:
  • ISP: Internet Service Provider (Regional or National).
  • OSP: Online Service Provider (e.g., AOL, MSN) offering proprietary member-only content.
  • WISP: Wireless Internet Service Provider (e.g., AT&T, Verizon Wireless).
  • Internet Addresses:
  • IP Address: Numeric address consisting of four groups of numbers (e.g., 72.14.207.99).
  • Domain Name: Text-based version of an IP address (e.g., www.google.com). Top-Level Domain (TLD) labels: .com, .edu, .gov, .mil, .net, .org, .k12, and country codes (.us, .uk, .ca).

• World Wide Web (WWW):

  • Worldwide collection of electronic documents called Web pages. A collection of related Web pages is a Web site; the starting page is the home page.
  • URL (Uniform Resource Locator): Unique address for a Web page (e.g., http://www.nps.gov/learn/trt/brochureSBColor.pdf consisting of protocol http://, domain name www.nps.gov, path learn/trt/, and file name brochureSBColor.pdf).
  • Web Generations:
  • Web 1.0: Static, read-only pages.
  • Web 2.0 (Participatory Web): Interactive sites allowing user-generated content, collaboration, and social networking.
  • Web 3.0 (Semantic Web): Intelligent Web where information semantics are defined, turning the Web into a searchable database that understands user requests.
  • Hyperlinks: Target (same document), Relative (same server), Absolute (different server). Enables non-linear discovery learning.
  • Web Languages: HTML (Hypertext Markup Language using tags), XML (eXtensible Markup Language using custom schema), XHTML, CSS (Cascading Style Sheets).
  • Web Browsers: Software to view Web pages (e.g., Internet Explorer, Chrome, Safari, Firefox). Created in 1993 by Marc Andreessen as Mosaic (first graphical browser). Uses tabbed browsing, history lists, and bookmarks/favorites.

• Web Site Categories:

  • Portal, News, Informational, Business, Education, Entertainment, Advocacy, Blog (Weblog/Vlog/Microblog - Twitter), Wiki (collaborative site e.g., Wikipedia), Online Social Network / Media Sharing, Web Application (Web App), Content Aggregator, Personal.

• Search Tools & Operators:

  • Search Engine: Searches an index database matching keywords (Operators: AND / +, OR, AND NOT / -, " " for exact phrases, ( ) for grouping, * wildcard).
  • Subject Directory: Categorized directory organized by subject areas.

• Web Multimedia & Plug-ins:

  • Plug-ins: Software extending browser capabilities (Acrobat Reader [PDF], Flash Player, Java, QuickTime, RealPlayer, Shockwave, Silverlight, Windows Media Player).
  • Graphics: JPEG, GIF (animated GIF), PNG, BMP, TIFF. Thumbnails are small preview images.
  • Audio: MP3, WAV, WMA, RealAudio. Streaming audio plays while downloading. Podcasts are recorded audio files distributed via RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds.
  • Video: Full-motion images (15–60 fps). Streaming video, video sharing sites (YouTube, TeacherTube).
  • Virtual Reality (VR): 3-D simulations of real or imagined environments (VR worlds).

• Internet Services:

  • E-mail: Transmission of messages/files via mail servers. Address structure: username@domain (e.g., cbrown@ocps.k12.ca.us).
  • FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Standard for exchanging files with FTP servers/sites; supports anonymous FTP and uploading/downloading.
  • Newsgroups & Message Boards: Usenet online discussion groups. Uses newsreaders to read/post articles in threaded discussions.
  • Mailing Lists: E-mail groups managed by programs like LISTSERV.
  • Instant Messaging (IM) & Text Messaging (SMS): Real-time text communications.
  • Chat Rooms: Real-time typed conversations on a chat server/channel.
  • Voice over IP (VoIP / Internet Telephony): Voice calls over the Internet (e.g., magicJack).

• Netiquette (Internet Etiquette):

  • Rules of online conduct: Treat others with respect, keep messages brief, avoid shouting (ALL CAPS), avoid sending flames (insulting messages) or flame wars, avoid spam (unsolicited bulk mail), use emoticons :-) and acronyms (BTW, FYI, IMHO, TTFN).

• Security & Educational Controls:

  • Firewalls, proxy servers, filtering software, Acceptable Use Policies (AUPs).

• Critical Thinking Exploration: The Flipped Classroom:

  • Concept: Reverses traditional teaching. Direct instruction/lectures occur outside the classroom via videos/screencasts/podcasts (e.g., Khan Academy, Khan/Bergmann/Sams), freeing in-class time for inquiry-based, active, project-based learning.

Chapter 3: Software for Educators

• System Software vs. Application Software:

  • System Software: Programs controlling computer operations and devices, acting as the interface between user, application software, and hardware.
  • Operating System (OS): System software coordinating hardware activities and executing applications. Must be loaded into RAM during startup.

• Operating System Categories:

  • Stand-Alone OS: Complete OS for desktops/laptops (e.g., Microsoft Windows 7, Windows 8, Mac OS X / Mavericks).
  • Embedded OS: Resides on internal chips inside mobile devices/tablets (e.g., Apple iOS, Google Android, BlackBerry OS 10). Supports multi-touch gestures.
  • Emerging OS: Cloud-centric OS (e.g., Google Chrome OS running on Chromebooks).

• User Interface & Application Basics:

  • User Interface: Controls input and output. Graphical User Interface (GUI) uses desktop, icons, buttons, windows, title bars, menus, and dialog boxes.
  • Document Development Cycle: Creating $\rightarrow$ Editing $\rightarrow$ Formatting $\rightarrow$ Saving $\rightarrow$ Printing.
  • Formatting Concepts: Font (typeface design), Font size (points, $1\text{ point} = \frac{1}{72}\text{ inch}$), Font style (bold, italic, underline), Margins, Wordwrap, Scrolling, Clipboard (temporary storage for cut/copy/paste).
  • Input Methods: Speech/Voice recognition, Note taking software (e.g., OneNote, NoteTaker HD) converting handwriting/audio to digital notes.

• Productivity Software Categories:

  • Word Processing (e.g., Microsoft Word, Apple Pages): Text creation/editing. Features: AutoCorrect, AutoFormat, columns, grammar checker, mail merge, spell checker, templates, wizards, headers/footers, clip art.
  • Spreadsheet (e.g., Microsoft Excel, Apple Numbers): Organizes numeric data in rows (numbered) and columns (lettered). Intersection is a cell (e.g., D5). Cell contents: Labels (text), Values (numbers), Formulas (calculations), Functions (predefined formulas e.g., =SUM(D4:D8)). Charts: Line, column, pie.
  • Database (e.g., Microsoft Access, FileMaker Pro): Collection of data organized in tables/files. File $\rightarrow$ Records (rows) $\rightarrow$ Fields (columns, smallest unit of accessible data).
  • Presentation Graphics (e.g., Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple Keynote): Creates electronic slide shows. Features: Slide sorter, slide transitions, slide timing, non-linear hyperlinking.
  • Personal Information Managers (PIMs): Calendar, address book, notepad, syncing.
  • Web Applications & Cloud Computing: Software hosted on Web servers accessed via browser (e.g., Google Docs). Contrast: Apps (single-purpose mobile software) vs Web Apps (browser-accessible) vs Application Software (installed desktop programs).
  • Software Suites: Bundled application packages (e.g., Microsoft Office 2013/365, Apple iWork) offering lower cost and consistent user interfaces.

• Graphics & Multimedia Software:

  • Desktop Publishing (DTP): Page layout software for high-quality publications (e.g., Microsoft Publisher, Adobe InDesign).
  • Paint & Image Editing: Creates/modifies raster graphics and digital photos (e.g., Corel Painter, Adobe Photoshop, Photo Story, iPhoto).
  • Multimedia Authoring: Assembles text, graphics, audio, video, and animation into interactive applications (e.g., Camtasia Studio, Adobe Captivate).
  • Video & Audio Editing: Modifies video clips and soundtracks (e.g., iMovie, Movie Maker, Final Cut).
  • Web Page Authoring: Creates HTML/XML Web pages (e.g., Adobe Dreamweaver, WebBlender).

• School & Educational Software:

  • School & Student Management Software: Centralized administrative tracking of budgets, inventory, transportation, grades, and attendance.
  • Gradebook Software: Tracks tests, homework, and averages (e.g., Engrade, MicroGrade, GradeQuick, Easy Grade Pro).
  • K-12 Educational Software Types:
  • CAI / CBI / CBL / CAL: Computer-assisted/based instruction.
  • Drill-and-Practice (Skills-Reinforcement): Repetitive exercises with instant feedback for skill mastery/remediation.
  • Educational Games: Rule-based competitive learning environments (e.g., PBS KIDS, Ready To Learn).
  • Tutorials: Direct instruction using branching (custom paths based on responses).
  • Educational Simulations: Interactive models of real-life systems or events (e.g., SimCity).
  • Integrated Learning Systems (ILS) & Open Learning Systems: Comprehensive hardware/software packages providing diagnostic testing, automated tracking, and content delivery (e.g., CompassLearning, Classworks).
  • Curriculum Categories: Creativity, Critical Thinking, Early Learning (PreK-3), ESL/Foreign Language, Language Arts, Math, Science, Social Studies, Special Needs (assistive technologies, speech synthesis, text enlargement).

• Personal & Home Use Software:

  • Personal finance (Quicken), Tax preparation (TurboTax), Legal software (WillMaker), Entertainment software.

• Software Versions & Upgrades:

  • Version numbering (major vs. minor releases). Microsoft Office Open XML Formats introduced default file extensions: .docx (Word), .xlsx (Excel), .pptx (PowerPoint), providing smaller file size (zip compression), improved damage recovery, and enhanced privacy.

• Critical Thinking Exploration: Video, App, and eBook-Based Teaching and Learning:

  • Utilizing video repositories (TeacherTube, WatchKnowLearn, iTunes U, TEDEd) and interactive ebook authoring tools (iBooks Author) for multimodal learning.

Chapter 4: Hardware for Educators

• System Unit & Data Representation:

  • System Unit: Boxlike case housing internal electronic computer components.
  • Data Representation: Digital computers use the binary system (2 states: $0 = \text{off}$, $1 = \text{on}$).
  • Bit (Binary Digit): Smallest unit of data.
  • Byte: 8 bits grouped together, representing 256 individual characters via coding schemes like ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).

• Internal System Components:

  • Motherboard: Main circuit board containing chips and integrated circuits.
  • CPU (Central Processing Unit / Processor): Executes instructions. Dual-core vs multi-core (Core i7, Celeron, Xeon).
  • Control Unit: Fetches, decodes, executes, and stores instructions via the Machine Cycle.
  • Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic ($+,-,\times,\div$), comparison ($>, =, <$), and logical (AND, OR, NOT) operations.
  • System Clock: Synchronizes operations via pulses measured in gigahertz (GHz) ($1\text{ GHz} = 1\text{ billion cycles/second}$).
  • Memory Units:
  • Address: Unique numeric memory location for each byte.
  • Capacities: Kilobyte (KB) = $1,024\text{ bytes}$; Megabyte (MB) = $\approx 1\text{ million bytes}$; Gigabyte (GB) = $\approx 1\text{ billion bytes}$; Terabyte (TB) = $\approx 1\text{ trillion bytes}$.
  • RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile temporary workspace (e.g., SDRAM installed on DIMM modules).
  • ROM (Read-Only Memory): Nonvolatile permanent memory storing startup data/instructions.
  • Flash Memory: Nonvolatile memory erased/rewritten electronically.
  • Expansion & Connectivity:
  • Expansion slots and adapter cards (Plug and Play).
  • Removable memory: Flash memory cards (SD, SDHC, microSD, CompactFlash), USB flash drives, PC Cards, ExpressCard modules (supports hot plugging).
  • Ports & Connectors: USB ports (USB 2.0, USB 3.0), FireWire ports, Bluetooth wireless adapters.

• Input Concepts & Devices:

  • Input: Data, programs, commands, user responses.
  • Devices: Keyboard (QWERTY layout, numeric keypad, cursor keys, toggle keys [Caps Lock, Num Lock], wireless), Mouse (optical, wireless, Magic Mouse), Touchpad, Pointing stick, Trackball, Joystick, Wheel, Touch screen / Multi-touch, Kiosk, Optical Scanner, Pen input (Stylus, Digital pen), Digital Camera, Audio input (microphones, sound cards, speech/voice recognition), Video input (webcams, digital video cameras), Touch-sensitive pads (Click Wheel).

• Output Concepts & Devices:

  • Output: Text, graphics, audio, video. Information displayed electronically is soft copy; printed output is hard copy (portrait vs. landscape).
  • Devices:
  • Display Devices: CRT monitors, Flat-panel LCD monitors/screens (liquid crystal display, resolution in pixels e.g., $1600 \times 1200$, response time, dot pitch, contrast ratio), Plasma monitors, HDTVs (using AirPlay/Apple TV).
  • Printers: Nonimpact printers include Ink-jet printers (spraying liquid ink; photo printers) and Laser printers (using powdered toner and heat/pressure). Thermal printers, plotters.
  • Data Projectors: LCD projectors, DLP (digital light processing) projectors.
  • Facsimile (Fax) Machines & Fax Modems.
  • Multifunction Devices (MFD / All-In-One).
  • Interactive Whiteboards (IWBs): Touch-sensitive interactive displays.
  • Audio Output: Speakers, Headphones, Earphones/earbuds, Voice output.

• Storage Media & Devices:

  • Storage: Nonvolatile secondary storage.
  • Magnetic Disks: Formatted into concentric tracks, pie-shaped sectors, and clusters. Hard Disks contain aluminum/glass platters (Drive C). Miniature hard disks, portable/external hard disks.
  • Solid State Drives (SSD): Flash memory storage with no moving parts; faster, cooler, more durable than magnetic disks.
  • Optical Discs: Flat, round portable plastic/metal discs read/written by lasers.
  • CD-ROM ($650\text{ MB} - 1\text{ GB}$ read-only), CD-R (recordable once), CD-RW (rewritable).
  • DVD-ROM ($4.7\text{ GB} - 17\text{ GB}$), DVD-R/DVD+R, DVD-RW/DVD+RW, SuperDrive, Blu-ray Disc (BD, $100\text{ GB}+$).
  • Miniature Mobile Storage & Cloud: Flash memory cards, USB flash drives, Smart cards (microprocessor embedded), Cloud storage (e.g., iCloud, OneDrive, Google Drive).

• Critical Thinking Exploration: Bring Your Own Device (BYOD):

  • Examines advantages (cost savings, familiar student hardware, engagement) and challenges (digital divide, classroom management, network security, software compatibility) of allowing students to use personal mobile devices in school.

Chapter 5: Technology, Digital Media, and Curriculum Integration

• Digital Media & Education:

  • Definitions: Technology (broad tools) vs. Multimedia (multiple media forms) vs. Digital Media (interactive digital multisensory communications).
  • Elements: Text, Graphics, Animation, Audio, Video.
  • Impact on Learning: Multisensory engagement dramatically improves retention (students retain $20\%$ of what they see, $30\%$ of what they hear, $50\%$ of what they see and hear, and up to $80\%$ of what they see, hear, and interact with).

• Curriculum & Standards:

  • Curriculum: Knowledge, skills, and performance standards expected in specific grade levels/subject areas.
  • Common Core State Standards Initiative: National benchmark framework in Math and English Language Arts.
  • Curriculum Framework (Guide/Map): State/district document outlining standards, benchmarks, and performance indicators.
  • Curriculum Standard (Goal): Defines what a student should know at a given stage.
  • Benchmark (Learning Objective/Expectation): Specific, measurable outcome tied to a standard.

• Technology Integration (Curriculum Integration):

  • Definition: Combining technology hardware and software with curriculum subject areas to meet standards and learning outcomes. The curriculum must drive the technology, not vice versa.
  • Point of Instruction: Having technology readily available in the classroom at the exact moment of learning (teachable moment).
  • Computer Labs / Media Centers vs. Classroom Integration.

• Instructional Strategies & Transformation:

  • Shifting teacher role from "sage on the stage" to "guide on the side" (facilitator of learning).
  • Welliver's Instructional Transformation Model:
  1. Familiarization: Awareness of technology.
  2. Utilization: Basic usage; minor problems cause abandonment.
  3. Integration: Technology becomes essential to classroom learning.
  4. Reorientation: Rethinking classroom educational goals using technology.
  5. Revolution: Seamless, invisible, complete integration across all subjects.
  • Barriers to Integration: Lack of training, security constraints, lack of administrative support, planning time, budget, network speed, resistance to change.

• Learning Process & Technology:

  • Authentic Learning: Real-world connections to lessons.
  • Participatory (Secondary) Learning: Student engagement in inquiry, problem solving, and questioning.
  • Anchored Instruction: Anchoring lessons around a complex scenario/problem (problem-based instruction).
  • Discovery Learning: Inquiry-based, non-linear exploration.
  • Cognitive Scaffold: Mental bridge built to understand complex concepts.
  • Educational Equalizer: Tech/Web leveling the playing field across diverse socio-economic and geographic backgrounds.
  • Cooperative Learning: Group collaboration on learning goals.
  • Higher-Order Thinking Skills: Problem-solving, critical analysis, and synthesis.

• Planning & Instructional Models:

  • Technology Plans, Mentorship Programs, Learning Centers (Discovery, Web Search, Modeling, Library, Scanning/Photo, Science, Project).
  • KWL / KWHL Charts: What I Know, What I Want to know, How I will learn, What I Learned.
  • The ASSURE Model:
  • Analyze the Learner.
  • State Objectives.
  • Select Methods, Media, and Materials.
  • Utilize Methods, Media, and Materials.
  • Require Learner Participation.
  • Evaluate and Revise (reflective evaluation).

• Digital Media Presentations & Interactive Whiteboards:

  • Authoring Tools: PowerPoint, Keynote, iLife, Prezi.
  • Projection & IWBs: Data projectors (LCD, DLP, 3D), Interactive Whiteboards (SMART Board, ActivBoard, Brightlink Interactive Projector, SMART Table, ActivInspire software, Dr. Johnny Chung Lee's Wii Remote hack).

• Getting Started at a New School:

  • Assessing hardware, software, state bid lists, technology committees, teacher's manuals, in-service training, grants, and technology supplies.

• Critical Thinking Exploration: STEM and 21st Century Teaching:

  • STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math) crisis, international student performance comparisons, National Math and Science Initiative (NMSI) data, 3-D printing, Khan Academy.

Special Feature 5: Learning Theories and Educational Research

• Foundational Definitions:

  • Learning: Gaining knowledge or skills through instruction, study, or experience.
  • Theory: Scientific principles explaining a phenomenon.
  • Deep Processing (Craik & Lockhart): Mental effort required for long-term retention, contrasting with Prensky's "twitch speed" processing.

• Behaviorist Learning Theories:

  • Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behaviors controlled by external environmental stimuli and conditioning, without regard to internal mental processes.
  • Ivan Pavlov: Classic Conditioning (natural reflex response to a stimulus; famous dog salivation experiment).
  • B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning (shaping behavior through positive and negative reinforcement of stimulus-response patterns; teaching pigeons; foundation of drill-and-practice software).
  • Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory / Social Cognitive Theory (observational modeling, self-efficacy, imagery; bridging behaviorism and cognitivism).

• Cognitivist Learning Theories:

  • Cognitivism: Focuses on internal mental processes (thinking, memory, decision-making, information processing).
  • Allan Paivio: Dual Coding Theory (simultaneous processing of visual/image and verbal/language information enhances recall).
  • Robert Gagne: Cognitive Learning Hierarchies & 9 Events of Instruction (1. Gain attention, 2. Inform objectives, 3. Stimulate recall, 4. Present stimulus, 5. Provide guidance, 6. Elicit performance, 7. Provide feedback, 8. Assess performance, 9. Enhance retention/transfer).
  • Howard Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences (8 original intelligences: Linguistic-verbal, Logical-mathematical, Spatial-visual, Body-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist).
  • Benjamin Bloom: Three Domains of Learning (Cognitive, Affective, Psychomotor). Bloom's Taxonomy (Hierarchy of Cognitive Domain: Knowledge $\rightarrow$ Comprehension $\rightarrow$ Application $\rightarrow$ Analysis $\rightarrow$ Synthesis $\rightarrow$ Evaluation). Mastery Learning.

• Constructivist Learning Theories:

  • Constructivism: Learning is an active process where learners construct their own understanding and knowledge based on experiences and reflection.
  • Jean Piaget: Four Cognitive Development Stages:
  1. Sensorimotor (Birth – 2 years): Senses and motor activity.
  2. Preoperational (2 – 6/7 years): Symbols, pretend play, egocentric.
  3. Concrete Operational (6/7 – 11/12 years): Logical reasoning, concrete problem solving.
  4. Formal Operational (11/12 years – Adult): Abstract thinking, hypothesis testing.
  • Concepts: Schema, Adaptation, Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibrium.
  • Jerome Bruner: Active discovery learning, Socratic method of questioning, Spiral Curriculum (revisiting concepts at increasing levels of complexity).
  • Lev Vygotsky: Social Cognition, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (gap between actual and potential development via guidance), Collaborative Learning, Scaffolding (temporary cognitive support).
  • John Dewey: Child-centered learning, school as a social community, learning by doing, Progressive Education, Pragmatism.

• Game-Based Learning & RETAIN Model:

  • James Gee's 36 video game learning principles.
  • RETAIN Model/Rubric (Gunter, Kenny, & Vick):
  • Relevance (content matches learner needs).
  • Embedding (academic content is endogenous to fantasy/gameplay).
  • Transfer (applying game knowledge to real-world contexts).
  • Adaptation (building on cognitive schema).
  • Immersion (cognitive/emotional engagement).
  • Naturalization (habitual, automatic skill application).

Chapter 6: The Changing Face of Education — Teaching Online

• Distance Education Framework:

  • Distance Education (Distance Learning / Distributed Learning): Delivery of instruction from one location to another where teaching and learning occur in different physical/temporal locations.
  • Delivery Modes:
  • Synchronous (real-time e.g., web chats, live video conferencing) vs. Asynchronous (different times e.g., e-mail, discussion boards).
  • Instructor-Led vs. Self-Paced.
  • Web-Based Training (WBT), Webinars, Webcasts, Online Workshops, VoIP.

• Impact across Sectors:

  • Government/Business, Colleges/Universities (fully online e.g., Walden University; dual enrollment), K-12 Schools, Professional Development Training (in-service online courses).

• The K-12 eLearning Environment:

  • Virtual Classroom Environment / Virtual Learning Environment (VLE): Networked online space for accessing assignments, discussions, projects, and grades.
  • 100% Online Course (Virtual Course) vs. Blended Learning (Hybrid / Mixed Mode).
  • Brick-and-Mortar School: Traditional physical school building.
  • Virtual School (Cyber School / Cyber Charter School): Institution providing all services, instruction, and courses online (e.g., Florida Virtual School - FLVS).
  • Special Programs: Dual Enrollment (earning college credit in high school), Credit Recovery (retaking failed course components to graduate on time).

• Blended Learning (Hybrid / Mixed Mode):

  • Definition (SLOAN Consortium): Blends F2F instruction with online learning activities in a planned, pedagogical manner, replacing a portion of in-class time.
  • Benefits: Combines best of both worlds, flexible scheduling, improved retention, enables Differentiated Instruction (tailoring instruction to individual student learning styles and needs).

• Transitioning to Teaching Online:

  • Tips for Online Teachers: Do Unto Others, Be Positive, Communication is Key, Just Ask, Be Flexible, Stay Current, Go Live, Make Time for You.
  • Essential Tools: Learning Management System (LMS) / Content Management System (CMS) (e.g., Blackboard, Moodle, Angel, Canvas), word processor, presentation software, e-mail, spreadsheet, screencasting software (Jing, Camtasia), plagiarism checkers (Turnitin).
  • Instructional Preparation: Deep content knowledge, rephrasing questions via Bloom's Taxonomy, time management/scheduling (using tools like Flash Appointments), establishing online protocols, team teaching, setting up an ergonomic home office (backup hardware, cloud backups, mobile hotspots, cell/landline redundancy).

• Tools for Online Learning:

  • Mobile Learning (mLearning): Portable learning via smartphones/tablets.
  • Apps: Curriculum-specific mobile software (e.g., Grammar Up, National Archives, TED, meStudying, Evernote, Flashcards, Dictionary.com).
  • Teacher Web Pages: Developed via tools like Google Sites, WebBlender, iWeb.
  • Blogs (Weblogs): Time-stamped journal entries listed in reverse chronological order. Enhances writing and reflection (platforms: Blogger, EduBlogs).
  • Wikis: Collaborative Web sites where users create, add, edit, or delete content (e.g., Wikipedia, Wikispaces, PBworks).
  • Podcasts / Vodcasts: Audio/video recordings distributed via RSS feeds.
  • Screencasts: Digital recording of computer screen output with audio narration (e.g., Camtasia Studio, Screencast.com).

• eAssessment (Online Assessment):

  • Rubrics: Detailed scoring guides.
  • Formative Assessment: Ongoing evaluation during learning.
  • Summative Assessment: Evaluation at the end of an instructional unit/course.
  • Self-Assessment and Peer-Assessment.

• Florida Virtual School (FLVS):

  • First state-wide virtual school (founded 1997). Uses learning coaches, 3D games (Conspiracy Code), MUVEs (Second Life for Educators), and custom meStudying mobile apps.

• Critical Thinking Exploration: Will MOOCs Change Education?:

  • MOOC (Massive Open Online Course): Free, large-scale online courses (e.g., Coursera, Udacity, edX). Explores potential applicability and debate for K-12 AP and STEM courses.

Special Feature 6: A World without Wires — Tablets, Apps, and More

• Wireless Connectivity & Standards:

  • WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network): Short-range network using Bluetooth technology ($ approx 10 - 100\text{ meters}$).
  • WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network): Uses radio waves based on IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) standards. Connected via hotspots.
  • Wireless Cellular Networks: High-speed 3G and 4G networks using cellular towers. Users can create a personal mobile hotspot.
  • Wireless Home Networks: Connects home computers/peripherals to a wireless router/access point.
  • Negroponte Flip: Transition where wired media become wireless and vice versa.

• The Tablet Revolution:

  • Tablet Computer: Multi-touch screen mobile computer (e.g., Apple iPad, Android tablets, kid-specific LeapPad).
  • Features & Educational Applications:
  • Video Conferencing: FaceTime, fring.
  • Screen Projection: Video mirroring, AirPlay.
  • Wireless Printing & Input: AirPrint, Bluetooth keyboards, wireless speakers.
  • Cloud Storage: iCloud (5 GB free), OneDrive (25 GB free).
  • Educational Repositories: iTunes U.
  • Productivity Apps: Pages, Keynote, Numbers, GarageBand, iMovie.
  • Administrative Tracking: MobileMe / Find My iPad (GPS anti-theft tracking).
  • Interactive eBooks: iBooks, iBook Store.
  • Digital Note Taking: Handwriting/drawing via multi-touch screen.
  • Accessibility: VoiceOver, White on Black, Mono Audio, specialized special education apps.

Chapter 7: Evaluating Educational Technology and Integration Strategies

• Evaluating Educational Technology:

  • Evaluate: To determine the value or judge the worth of educational technology.
  • Appropriate: Suitable for the educational situation, motivational, and promoting learning at correct academic/ability levels.
  • Evaluation Cycle: Before instruction, During instruction, After instruction.

• Sources of Information for Evaluation:

  • School districts, State Departments of Education, professional organizations, app reviews, colleague recommendations, published reviews, technology conferences, Web listservs (e.g., EDTECH).

• Evaluating Software & Apps:

  • Free trial/evaluation copies, "lite" app versions.
  • Software/App Evaluation Rubric Criteria:
  • Content: Validity (well-grounded instructional properties), factual accuracy, freedom from bias/stereotypes, alignment with standards.
  • Documentation & Technical Support: Manuals, tutorials, 800 support numbers, online help.
  • Ability Levels & Assessment: Setting/advancing skill levels, built-in reporting tools.
  • Technical Quality & Ease of Use: Screen design, feedback/prompts, user-friendliness.

• Evaluating Web Resources:

  • Criteria: Authority (author credentials), Affiliation (domain TLDs: .com, .edu, .gov, .org, .k12), Purpose & Objectivity (free of bias/commercial intent), Content & Learning Process, Audience & Currency (last updated date), Design (navigation, download speed, layout).

• Assessment Tools for Technology Integration:

  • Traditional Assessment: Multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, essay tests.
  • Alternative Assessment: Nontraditional evaluations.
  • Authentic Assessment: Evaluates real-world tasks and performance over time.
  • Project-Based Assessment: Focuses on evaluating student-created projects (project-based learning).
  • Portfolio Assessment: Evaluates student work collections over time (electronic portfolio).
  • Checklists, Rating Scales, and Rubrics.
  • Teacher Observation: Active observation during the learning process.

• Evaluating Student Projects:

  • Content accuracy, planning tools (Inspiration, flowcharts, concept maps/story webs, storyboards), creativity.

• Classroom Integration Strategies:

  • One-Computer Classroom: Whole-class presentations, small group rotation, teacher productivity, activity/production center, interactive whiteboards/document cameras.
  • Multi-Computer Classroom: Subject-specific learning centers, cooperative group work.
  • Computer Labs / Media Centers: Hands-on one-to-one computing, Web scavenger hunts, WebQuests.
  • Interactive Lessons: Learner Response Systems (clickers) for real-time formative assessment.
  • Curriculum Resource Pages: Teacher-created Web pages containing evaluated, preselected hyperlinks to prevent aimless Web surfing.

• Funding Technology Integration:

  • Fund-raising drives, business partnerships, academic contests.
  • Grants: Funds transferred from a funding source to a grantee.
  • Request for Proposal (RFP): Document detailing grant application requirements.
  • Grant Proposal: Application submitted to funding source.

• Critical Thinking Exploration: Student Standards Implementation:

  • Implementation of Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards. Assessment consortiums: SBAC (Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium) and PARCC (Partners for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers).

Chapter 8: Security Issues and Ethics in Education

• Computer Security Risks & Malware:

  • Computer Security Risk: Any event causing loss/damage to computer hardware, software, data, or processing capability.
  • Computer Crime: Illegal act involving a computer.
  • Computer Viruses:
  • Definition: Potentially damaging program altering computer operations without permission. Damage caused is the virus payload.
  • Types: Boot sector virus, File virus, Macro virus.
  • Malicious Software (Malware): Worm (self-replicating program copying itself across networks), Trojan horse (hides inside legitimate program), Logic bomb (triggers on specific condition), Time bomb (triggers on specific date), Rootkit (hides and allows remote takeover).
  • Virus Safeguards: Antivirus programs (vaccines e.g., Norton, McAfee), rescue discs, scanning downloads/attachments, avoiding virus hoaxes.

• Unauthorized Access, Use, and Safeguards:

  • Crackers / Hackers: Unauthorized intruders.
  • Access Controls: User IDs (usernames) and strong passwords.
  • Possessed Objects: Physical security items (cards, badges, keys) often combined with a PIN (Personal Identification Number).
  • Biometric Devices: Authenticate identity using physical characteristics (fingerprints, hand geometry, iris scans).
  • Firewalls & Proxy Servers: Hardware/software security restricting unauthorized network access.

• Physical Security, Software Theft, and Privacy:

  • Hardware Security: Cables, deadbolt locks, alarm systems, Lojack tracking software.
  • Software Theft & Piracy: Unauthorized copying of copyrighted software. Governed by End-User License Agreements (EULA), product activation, single-user vs. multiple-user vs. network vs. community/state site licenses.
  • Information Theft & Encryption: Protecting data via encryption (converting plain text to unreadable ciphertext using an encryption key).
  • System Failures & Power Protection: Undervoltages (brownouts, blackouts), Overvoltages/Power surges (spikes). Protected via surge protectors and Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).
  • Backups: Creating duplicate files (backup) to restore data; off-site storage.

• Computer Ethics & Information Privacy:

  • Computer Ethics: Moral guidelines governing computer/network use (10 Commandments for Computer Ethics).
  • Information Privacy: Right to restrict collection/use of personal data. Issues: Electronic profiles, Phishing (identity theft scams), Spam (unsolicited e-mail; spim = IM spam; split = VoIP spam), e-mail filtering/antispam software.
  • Major Federal Privacy Laws: CIPA, COPPA, FERPA, HIPAA, PATRIOT Act, Privacy Act of 1974, Fair Credit Reporting Act.
  • Employee & Student Monitoring: Surveillance of computer/e-mail/network usage.

• Copyright & Internet Ethics:

  • Copyright Act of 1976: Exclusive rights granted to creators.
  • Fair Use (Section 107): Allows non-profit educational copying based on 4 criteria: (1) purpose/character of use, (2) nature of copyrighted work, (3) amount/substantiality used, (4) market effect.
  • Public Domain: Works free from copyright restrictions.
  • Objectionable Material: Pornographic, racist, or inaccurate Web content. Controlled via filtering software, AUPs, curriculum resource pages, and teacher observation.
  • Cyberbullying: Direct attacks or proxy bullying via digital media.

• Green Computing & Ergonomics:

  • Green Computing: Reducing electricity use and environmental waste (recycling paper/toner, energy-saving modes).
  • Health Issues: Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) / Repetitive strain injuries (RSI) like Tendonitis and Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS); Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS).
  • Ergonomics: Designing comfortable, safe, and efficient computer workspaces.

• Critical Thinking Exploration: Parental Involvement in a Digital World:
  • Using technology (screencasts, cloud storage, translation tools) to foster meaningful, two-way parent-teacher communication.