1. The Evolution of International Society

Origins and Fundamental Definitions of International Society

The fundamental structure of international relations is predicated on the division of the world into separate political communities known as countries or states. These entities each exercise control over a distinct territory, and this separation between "us" and "them" is what allows international relations to exist. To understand the modern globalized landscape, one must analyze the historical development of the "international society." This term refers to the relationships and interactions between politically organized groups—states—that occupy their own territories and act independently of one another.

A state is defined by four essential characteristics: (1) a permanent population, (2) a defined territory, (3) a central government, and (4) independence from all other governments. This final quality is known as state sovereignty, which stands as the most critical concept in understanding international relations. State sovereignty is a country's right to govern itself without external interference, serving as the primary foundation for all international rules, agreements, and relationships.

Conceptual Frameworks and the Anarchical Society Debate

Scholar Hedley Bull provided a foundational definition of international society, stating it exists when a group of states shares common interests and values, agrees to follow common rules, and utilizes common institutions to manage their relations. Under this framework, countries do not interact at random but form a society governed by shared norms, including independence, self-determination (the right of a people to govern themselves), non-intervention (the principle that no country should interfere in the internal affairs of another), and the right of self-defence. To manage these relationships, states employ two primary tools: diplomacy, which involves formal communication between governments, and international law, which consists of agreed-upon rules for state behavior. Today, these tools are increasingly moderated by international organizations such as the United Nations.

A central debate in political theory concerns the "anarchical society." Realist thinkers, influenced by Hobbes and Machiavelli, argue that because no world government exists above individual states, international relations are inherently chaotic and driven by pure self-interest. Bull challenged this by arguing that despite the condition of anarchy—defined as the absence of a single authority or world government—states still cooperate and build institutions. Therefore, international rules are voluntary agreements rather than top-down laws. However, scholar Edward Keene criticized Bull’s focus, noting that Bull prioritized the orderly European system while ignoring the brutal colonial and imperial orders Europeans imposed globally. In these colonial contexts, sovereignty was often divided and hierarchical, and colonized peoples were denied legal equality.

The Evolution of Early International Societies: Ancient Greece and Renaissance Italy

The chapter identifies two early precursors to modern international society: ancient Greece ($500$–$100\text{ BC}$) and Renaissance Italy ($1300$–$1500$). Ancient Greece, known to its inhabitants as Hellas, was a collection of independent city-states that shared a common language, religion, and culture. They distinguished themselves from non-Greeks, whom they labeled "barbarians," such as the Persians. While their society was not based on formal legal equality, they developed a sophisticated political vocabulary for concepts like "alliance," "treaty," "truce," and "peace." They also utilized the institution of "proxeny," where local residents acted as representatives for foreign city-states—an early form of diplomacy demonstrating that even ancient states required formal communication channels.

Power in the Greek world was significantly unequal. The historian Thucydides documented the famous Melian Dialogue, involving the major powers of Athens and Sparta against smaller states like Melos. Athens famously declared that "the strong do what they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to accept." This assertion is a foundational statement of Realism—the theory that states act based on power and self-interest rather than ethics or morality. The Greek international society eventually collapsed due to the expansion of empires, first under Philip II and Alexander the Great of Macedonia, and later under the Roman Empire, which replaced a system of independent states with a hierarchy of obedience.

The Middle Ages and the Transition to Secular States

Following the fall of Rome in the $4\text{th}$ century $AD$, Western Europe transitioned into a theocracy known as the Respublica Christiana, or the Christian Commonwealth. In this system, the Pope in Rome held the highest spiritual authority, though in practice, individuals' loyalties were often local, directed toward feudal lords rather than the king or the Church. This era was characterized by religious hierarchy rather than independent states. The Italian city-states of the Renaissance (including Venice, Florence, Milan, and the Papal States) were the first to break away from this medieval religious-political authority to invent the modern, secular "stato" (state).

Venice was instrumental in developing modern diplomacy, particularly the practice of exchanging "resident ambassadors" or permanent diplomatic representatives. The political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli ($1469$–$1527$) articulated this new political reality in his work The Prince. He proposed the concept of "reason of state" (or realpolitik), arguing that rulers should prioritize state interests over religious or moral considerations. Despite these innovations, the Italian city-states were eventually overwhelmed by the larger territorial powers of France and Spain because they remained too divided to defend themselves.

The Westphalian Era and the Birth of Modern Global Order

The modern European international society emerged from the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther’s theology helped decouple political power from religious authority by arguing that kings possessed legitimate authority in their own realms without the Pope’s approval. This era was marked by intense competition and frequent warfare. As historian Charles Tilly noted, "war made the state and the state made war." The Thirty Years War ($1618$–$1648$) began as a religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants but evolved into a massive struggle for power and territory. It concluded with the Peace of Westphalia ($1648$), the founding document of the modern international system.

The Peace of Westphalia established three core principles: (1) "rex est imperator in regno suo" (each king is sovereign in his own territory); (2) "cuius regio, eius religio" (the ruler determines the religion of his realm); and (3) the balance of power, a mechanism designed to prevent any single state from dominating the continent. During this time, Hugo Grotius ($1583$–$1645$) published Laws of War and Peace ($1625$), arguing for secular rules of international law that applied to all states regardless of religious affiliation. The resulting Westphalian system featured legal equality between states and professional diplomacy. However, Napoleon Bonaparte challenged this balance of power between $1795$ and $1815$ by attempting to build a continental empire, a move stopped by coalitions led by Britain. Modern scholars like Stephen Krasner critique this history, calling Westphalian sovereignty "organized hypocrisy" because powerful states often violate the rules when it serves their interests.

The Global Expansion and Transformation of International Society

Beginning in the late $15\text{th}$ century, European international society expanded globally through imperialism and the conquest of non-European territories. Empires treated non-European lands as property; for example, Britain acquired French Canada following the Seven Years War ($1756$–$1763$). Countries that avoided formal colonization, such as Japan, China, Persia, and the Ottoman Empire, were still pressured to adopt European norms. Japan modernized successfully to become a power, while China did not gain full membership in international society until $1945$. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) initially resisted these Western terms by insisting on Islamic standards but was forced to accept European rules by the mid-$19\text{th}$ century due to military decline.

The second phase of globalization occurred after World War II through decolonization. Colonized peoples in Asia and Africa utilized the concept of self-determination—the right of a people to choose their own government—to demand independence. Following the independence of India and Pakistan in $1947$, United Nations membership grew from approximately $50$ states to over $160$. The final step toward a truly global society followed the $1991$ collapse of the Soviet Union. However, the $2003$ US invasion of Iraq challenged the notion that even a global society could effectively bind the actions of powerful states.

Contemporary Challenges of Global International Society

There are seven major problems currently facing global international society:

1. Lack of a shared global culture: Unlike the early European system, today's global society lacks a unifying religious or cultural foundation. Resistance movements, such as those involved in the $9/11$ attacks, highlight the pushback against Western influence.

2. Western dominance of the global covenant: The rules of international society often reflect the interests of wealthy Western OECD states rather than the Global South.

3. Massive inequality between states: Despite formal legal equality, a vast economic gap exists between the global North and South, and global inequality continues to rise despite development policies.

4. Regional diversity and pluralism: The international system struggles to accommodate the distinct cultural and political norms of regions like the Middle East, East Asia, and Latin America.

5. Frozen borders and internal conflicts: The "freezing" of international borders since $1945$ has prevented interstate wars but trapped ethnic groups within colonial-era lines, leading to internal conflicts in places like Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo.

6. The non-intervention problem and failed states: The rule against interference makes it difficult to address humanitarian crises in "failed states" like Somalia, where the government has collapsed. Interventions that do occur, such as those by the US, are often seen as strategic rather than humanitarian.

7. Evolution toward world society: There is a debate over whether international society is becoming a "world society" governed by cosmopolitan norms—universal values like the right not to be tortured—and the influence of NGOs like Greenpeace and Amnesty International. These norms challenge the absolute nature of state sovereignty by suggesting that states cannot do whatever they wish within their own borders.