geography 2
Where are upland areas in the UK?
Upland areas are mostly found in England, Wales and Scotland.
Name three examples of Upland areas in the UK.
Grampian Mountains, The Pennies and Snowdonia.
What are upland areas?
An area with high altitude above sea level.
What are lowland areas?
An area with a low altitude matching sea level or below it.
Where are lowland areas located?
Lincolnshire, London and The Midlands.
What are the two types of waves?
Constructive and destructive.
What are the characteristics of constructive waves?
Strong swash, weak backwash.
What are the characteristics of destructive waves?
Weak swash, strong backwash (enough to remove sediment from beaches.)
What is weathering and what are the types?
The weakening of something, and the types are mechanical and chemical.
What's mechanical weathering?
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Freeze-thaw repeated cycles of freezing which expands the rock.
What's chemical weathering?
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The use of chemicals to weaken sediment.
What's mass movement?
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It's where a large proportion of mass is moved from its original place.
What are the types of mass movement?
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Rockfall, landslide, mudflow, and slumping.
What's rock fall?
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It's where individual fragments or chunks off a cliff face falls off the cliff, often from mechanical weathering.
What's a landslide?
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Sliding of blocks of rock moving rapidly along a plane with water lubricated over them.
What's mudflow?
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Saturated material flowing downhill.
What's slumping?
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The collapse of loose material often along a curved surface.
What are the types of erosion?
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Hydraulic power, abrasion, and attrition.
What's Hydraulic power?
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Hydraulic action is the force of waves crashing against the shore and cliffs. The power of the waves forces air into cracks, which expands the rock.
What is attrition?
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It is is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They break apart to become smaller and more rounded.
What's abrasion?
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Abrasion is sediment rubbing against the seabed/riverbed.
What is transportation?
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movement of material
How does long-short drift work?
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Sediment is carried by the waves along the coastline. The movement of the material is known as longshore drift. Waves approach the coast at an angle because of the direction of prevailing wind. The swash will carry the material towards the beach at an angle. The backwash then flows back to the sea, down the slope of the beach. The process repeats itself along the coast in the zigzag movement.
Why is sediment deposited in coastal areas?
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If the coast has constructive waves, the swash will deposit the sediment on the beach because the swash has lost its energy.
What type of beaches have a lot of deposition?
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- Waves starting to slow down and lose energy
- Shallow water
- Sheltered areas, eg bays
- Little or no wind
What are the rock types?
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igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary
What can the rock types be classified as?
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Soft rock and hard rock.
What are discordant coastlines?
A discordant coast line is where the rock type is alternating and the rocks are perpendicular to the coast.
What are concordant coastlines?
A concordant coast line is where the rock type is parallel to the coast, the rock types alternative from hard to soft.
How are headlands and bays formed?
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The waves attack the soft rock on a coast, eroding that part with hydraulic action. The hard rock is barely eroded/ not at all and begins to stick out as the soft rock goes back. The headland of hard rock protects the bay of soft rock. Occurs on discordant coast lines. It's called differential erosion.
How are cliffs and wave cut platforms formed?
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Destructive waves crash the coast line between high and low tide levels. The base of the cliff is being eroded by hydraulic action and abrasion. The base continues to erode causing a wave-cut notch. This continues to erode and the notch becomes bigger and bigger which cannot withstand the cliff above and eventually collapses due to gravity.
Where does the wave cut platform form?
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Where the cliff used to be.
How are caves, arches, stacks and stumps formed?
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1- Caves form from there being cracks in the cliff, hydraulic action erodes the cliff apart to form a cave.
2- If the cave is on a headland, the hydraulic action continues to erode the rock away to form an arch.
3- The arch keeps growing and eventually, cannot withstand the top of the arch so it collapses.
4- This leaves a stack which is a tall piece of rock, the pressure from the waves crashing against it and hydraulic action getting into the cracks, as well as abrasion. This weakens the stack and eventually the top will collapse to leave a stump.
How do beaches form?
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They form from constructive waves, which deposits sediment in long-shore drift.
How do dunes form?
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They are formed by the wind picking up sand particles and bouncing them along the beach and then getting trapped by some feature. Vegetation will form on the burn where the sand is trapped, and additional sand will be trapped as a result. As more sand is trapped, bigger dunes are formed because of the vegetation growing.
What are the 6 types of dunes?
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Berm, Embryo, Fore, Yellow, Grey and Mature.
What happens as the sand dunes become bigger?
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1. The colour changes.
2. It becomes more nutrient rich.
3. It has more vegetation.
How are spits formed?
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When the direction of the coastline changes, deposition begins to happen in the same direction of the previous direction. If the wind direction changes, the waves will deposit in a different direction which forms the hook as there's a change in the direction of the waves.
How are bars formed?
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They are formed in the same way of spits, but when the deposition continues completely across the whole bay which stops the waves from coming in. The previous bay is now a lagoon.
What are the major landform of erosion on the Holderness Coast?
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- Flamborough Head which is formed by soft rock eroding leaving the hard rock behind. As a result of hydraulic action and abrasion.
- Cave, arch, stack, stump are formed by wave refraction. Includes hydraulic action and abrasion.
What are the major landforms of depositions of the Holderness Coast?
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Spurn point - Formed as a result of long shore drift.
Holderness bay - formed as a result of lack of energy from long-short drift so deposited.
Name three coastal management strategies.
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Sea walls, rock armour and groynes.
What do seawalls do and what are the costs and benefits?
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They are a physical barriers against the sea to prevent flooding. They are around 5000+, and are quite expensive, and people argue they are unattractive. The benefits are successful as they are a direct barrier.
What is rock armour and what are the costs and benefits?
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They are rocks that are against a sea wall which break down the waves' energy. The cost of rock armour is over 200,000+, and can be seen as unattractive to people. The benefits is that they are relatively cheap to construct.
What are groynes and what are the costs and benefitS?
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Groynes are rock structures sticking out into the sea at right angles to the coast. Sediment is trapped between the groynes, these groynes absorb the wave energy. The costs of groynes are up to 500,000, and they need constant maintenance. The benefits they carry is that they look natural and can improve attractiveness.
What are some soft-engineering methods?
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Beach nourishment and beach profiling.
What is beach nourishment and what are the benefits and costs of it?
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It's where sand is fed to the beach to increase its height. Bulldozers can also push the sand into high ridges as a barrier to the waves. It costs 400 pounds, they are considered natural by most people.
What happens in the river profile?
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As you go down the river cross profile, the gradient decreases.
What is the sediment like in the upper course of the river?
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It is large and angular.
What is a solution?
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Minerals that are dissolved in water and are carried along in the river.
What are the four types of transportation?
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Traction
Saltation
Suspension
Solution
What is traction?
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Large particles rolled along the river bed by the water.
What is saltation?
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A bouncing or hopping motion by pebbles.
What is suspension?
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Particles suspended within in the water.
Why do rivers deposit sediment?
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It is where the velocity of the river is not sufficient enough in order to carry the sediment.
How are interlocking spurs formed?
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They are found in the river's upper course. They form from small streams and rivers tumbling down maintainsoides and they are forced to flow around the fingers of the land. The 'fingers' are the the interlocking spurs.
How are waterfalls and gorges formed?
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1) The river meets a band between soft, less resistant rock and hard, more resistant rock
2) River can easily erode soft rock through abrasion
3) Causes undercutting which leaves an overhang of hard rock
4) Hydraulic action forms a deep plunge pool
5) Due to the overhang's weight and gravity, it collapses into the plunge pool and this causes further abrasion of the rock bed and attrition
6) After many cycles the waterfall retreats backwards leaving a new steeper and straighter valley called a gorge.
How are meanders and ox-bow lakes formed?
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The velocity of the outside bend is the fastest, but on the inside bend it's the slowest, deposition occurs here as there's not enough energy. Lateral erosion occurs on the outside bends. The outside bend of a narrow neck keeps being eroded until it reaches the next bend in which they join up. The water takes the fastest route which is the straight line so the loop becomes redundant and unattachedH because it dries out.
How are levees formed?
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When there is flooding , there is a sudden decrease in velocity which causes the river to deposit sediment. This increases the height of the river banks.
How are floodplains formed?
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They are formed during flood conditions and is when water pours over a flat valley floor and deposits sediment. It's the land next to the river.
How are estuaries formed?
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They are formed at the river mouth, the rivers velocity and the sea's tide meet and makes the velocity drops significantly, this creates deposition as the energy is lost. Over time, mudflats are formed above the surface.
What are the landforms in the upper course River Tees?
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V-shaped valley, interlocking spurs. reservoirs, and waterfalls.
What are the landforms in the middle course River Tees?
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Meanders and floodplains.
What are the landforms in the lower course of the River Tees?
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Meanders and estuaries.
What are physical factors that affect flood risk?
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Prolonged rainfall, vegetation, heavy rainfall, and intense storms.
What are the human factors that affect flood risk?
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Overgrazing, deforestation, impermeable surfaces, channelisation, and afforestation.
How can overgrazing increase the chance of flooding?
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If animals overgraze and there is no grass, the surface can become dry which means the surface will become an impermeable surface and increase surface run-off.
How can prolonged rainfall cause flooding?
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The constant rain means that the river cannot get rid of the water as fast the rain is coming down so it has to flood, the same for heavy rainfall.
What are hydrographs used for?
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To show the relationship between rainfall and discharge.
What's lag time?
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The delay between peak rainfall to peak discharge. Worked out by taking away from each other.
What are hard engineering management strategies for rivers?
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Dams and reservoirs, straightening, embankments, flood relief channels.
What are soft engineering strategies for rivers?
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Flood warnings and preparation, flood plain zoning, planting trees, and river restoration.
What are dams and reservoirs, and what are the benefits and costs?
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Dams can be used to control water flow, they are concrete. A reservoir is an artificial lake. It is very expensive and can damage habitats. A benefit is that it provides hydro-electric power and a source of drinking water.
What are embankments and what are the benefits and costs?
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River banks can be raised artificially, creates a bigger capacity. It is expensive and unattractive, benefits are that the capacity is increased and creates walkways for people.
What are flood relief channels and the benefits and costs?
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They are channels to bypass towns, they can be very expensive and require maintenance. They are effective in reducing risk.