Radical Revolution

France's Relations with Europe and Louis XVI's Downfall

  • Opposition from Abroad

    • Most ultra royalists emigrated, including:

    • Count d'Artois (younger brother of Louis XVI)

    • Count de Provence (later Louis XVIII)

    • October 1791: Legislative Assembly issued an order for émigré nobles to return to France or lose property.

    • Louis XVI vetoed this law, raising doubts about his commitment to the constitution.

    • European monarchs feared French Revolution would inspire uprisings in their own countries.

    • August 27, 1791: Emperor Leopold II (Austria) and King Frederick William II (Prussia) issued the Declaration of Pillnitz

    • Called on European monarchs to use “effective means” to support Louis XVI and restore monarchical government in France.

    • Suspicion among European monarchs prevented a united action against France.

    • Increasing support for French émigrés, particularly in Rhineland.

  • War with Austria

    • January 1791: Legislative Assembly demanded Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II expel French émigrés.

    • Leopold refused; Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria on April 20, 1792.

    • Various motives for war:

    • Reactionaries hoped war would distract from the Revolution, and a defeat might restore the old regime.

    • Leftists believed war could consolidate the Revolution and spread it across Europe.

    • Initial military failures led to panic in Paris as fears of invasion grew.

    • Legislative Assembly mobilized 20,000 National Guardsmen from provinces to defend Paris.

    • A group from Marseilles sang a war song that became the French national anthem, the Marseillaise:

    • Lyrics reference tyranny and call citizens to arms.

  • Search for Scapegoats

    • Accusations against the king and military leadership as France faced defeats and economic shortages.

    • Popular unrest led to political demonstrations against the king.

  • Radical Phase of Revolution

    • August 1792: Insurrectionary commune organized mob attacks, capturing the king and forcing suspension of the monarchy.

    • National Convention called for universal male suffrage to decide on the future government form.

    • Rise of the sans-culottes: ordinary patriots who supported radical changes.

    • Often included merchants and better-off artisans, not just the poor.

The National Convention and the Fate of Louis XVI

  • Formation of the National Convention

    • September 1792: National Convention began sessions with the aim to draft a new constitution but acted as the sovereign body of France.

    • Composition: predominantly lawyers and professionals, with some artisans for the first time.

    • Distrust of the king was widespread, leading to abolition of monarchy and establishment of a republic on September 21.

  • Factions within the National Convention

    • Emergence of the Girondins and Mountain factions, both associated with the Jacobin club:

    • Girondins: Represented the provinces; opposed radical mobs and preferred to keep the king alive as insurance.

    • Mountain: Represented Paris interests, supported by radical elements, and eventually triumphed.

    • January 21, 1793: Louis XVI executed for treason (vote: 387 to 334).

Domestic Crises in Revolutionary France

  • Girondins vs. Mountain

    • Girondins feared radical mobs and Louis XVI’s death aggravated factional disputes and challenges.

    • Control of Paris by the radical Commune intensified pressure on the National Convention.

    • May-June 1793: Commune organized a demonstration, invaded the Convention, leading to arrest and execution of leading Girondins.

  • Vendée Rebellion

    • Rejection of National Convention authority in the Vendée region due to military drafts and call for the old regime.

    • Other cities like Lyons and Marseilles also rejected central authority.

Foreign Crisis: War and Alliances

  • International Opposition

    • Early 1793: Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Dutch Republic allied against France.

    • Danton’s rhetoric encouraged enthusiasm for war against other monarchies.

    • Initial successes were followed by overextension of French armies and reversals in military fortunes.

The Revolutionary Army and National Unity

  • Creation of Revolutionary Army

    • National Convention initiated a universal mobilization on August 23, 1793.

    • Figures involved included young men for fighting, married men for logistics, women for supplies, and children for training:

    • The goal was to create a “nation in arms.”

    • Army grew from 650,000 to 1,169,000 by September 1794.

  • Military Success and Expansion

    • Revolutionary army defeated opponents and conquered territories like the Austrian Netherlands.

    • Transition of warfare into a total war characterized by mass mobilization and involvement of the entire nation.

The Reign of Terror

  • Establishment of the Reign of Terror

    • National Convention and Committee of Public Safety enacted harsh measures to protect the Republic from internal enemies.

    • Revolutionary courts targeted perceived threats; thousands executed via guillotine, including notable figures like Queen Marie Antoinette and Olympe de Gouges.

    • Death toll estimates during the Terror range from approximately 16,000 to 250,000.

  • Activities of the Committee of Public Safety

    • Imposed laws that denied suspects the right to defend themselves, increasing execution rates.

    • Use of revolutionary armies to suppress dissent, especially in cities like Lyons and Naples.

    • Brutality in handling rebellions, demonstrating a lack of class prejudice against nobility, clergy, and working classes.

Justification of Violence by Revolutionary Leaders

  • Robespierre and the Revolutionary Government

    • Justified violence as necessary for public liberty:

    • Revolutionary government must act decisively in wartime, focusing on purging enemies.

    • Influenced by Rousseau's concept of the general will.

De-Christianization and Social Changes

  • De-Christianization

    • Campaign against Catholicism included renaming churches and establishing a Temple of Reason.

    • New republican calendar introduced on October 5, 1793, marked a significant change from traditional Christian observance.

    • Reaction against these policies was widespread and resistance developed, with many preferring to observe the old calendar.

The Role of Women

  • Women in the Revolution

    • Formed political clubs, advocated for rights, and protested for social changes.

    • Despite participation, male leaders frequently marginalized women’s roles and banned their organizations.

Conclusion and Aftermath of the Reign of Terror

  • Fall of Robespierre

    • As revolutionary fervor declined, anti-Robespierre sentiments grew, leading to his execution on July 28, 1794.

    • National Convention sought to stabilize French society; increasing control over radical groups.

    • Established a new Constitution in August 1795, which reflected a conservative shift in revolutionary ideals, aiming for greater stability in governance.

  • General Impact of the Revolution

    • Although initially successful in garnering support through radical measures, the government’s use of violence set a precedent for future political conflict.

  • The struggle for a new political identity continued post-Revolution, culminating in varying degrees of success and failure in maintaining the ideals of the Revolution over time.