Logical Fallacies

Logical Fallacies

1. DICTO SIMPLICITER

• Definition: Argument based on an unqualified generalization; a very broad application to a single premise hence untrue.

  • Example: "Exercise is good. Therefore, everybody should exercise."

  • Example: "Men are statistically more aggressive than women. Therefore, I, a male, must be more aggressive than you, a female."

2. HASTY GENERALIZATION

• Definition: A conclusion based on insufficient evidence or a small sample only; few examples cannot support the argument/conclusion.

  • Example: "Obama can't speak Russian. Trump can't speak Russian. Therefore, I conclude that no US president can speak Russian."

  • Example: "Even it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course."

3. CIRCULAR ARGUMENT (CIRCULAR REASONING/BEGGING THE QUESTION)

• Definition: Restates/repeats the argument rather than proving it; assumes that an argument is true in order to justify a conclusion.

  • Example: "George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively."

  • Example: "Women should be able to choose to terminate a pregnancy, so, abortion should be legal."

4. EITHER/OR FALLACY

• Definition: An argument reduced to only two sides or choices when more than two alternatives exist.

  • Example: "We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth."

  • Example: "The only boys worth dating on campus are Dave and Steve."

5. FALSE ANALOGY

• Definition: Comparing two different situations.

  • Example: "If doctors use X-rays to guide them in operations, then students should always have open notes in exams."

  • Example: "Failing to tip a waitress is like stealing money out of somebody's wallet."

6. CONTRADICTORY PREMISES

• Definition: Premises contradict each other; no argument can be made.

  • Example: "I don't care what you believe, as long as your beliefs don't harm others."

  • Example: "Don't trust anyone except me."

7. AD MISERICORDIAM (APPEAL TO PITY)

• Definition: Appeals for sympathy; winning support by exploiting feelings.

  • Example: "When a boss recommends someone for a promotion because they need money for family."

  • Example: "Commercials showing starving children in Africa before donation requests."

8. APPEAL TO FORCE

• Definition: Persuasion using threats or intimidation.

  • Example: "Agree with me, or I'll take away your toy."

  • Example: "Some ads pressuring immediate purchases to avoid missing out."

9. APPEAL TO FLATTERY

• Definition: Using compliments to persuade someone to do something.

  • Example: "Speaker A: Will you make us a cup of coffee? Speaker B: You're like a coffee god..."

10. BANDWAGON APPEAL (AD POPULUM)

• Definition: Persuasion by presenting majority opinions.

  • Example: "Cathy feels pressured to join social media because her friends have."

  • Example: "A Gallup Poll showing belief in astrology - implies truth due to the number of believers."

11. NON SEQUITUR

• Definition: A conclusion that does not logically follow from previous statements.

  • Example: "If a friend asked how you're doing and you say something about polar bears."

  • Example: "All birds have wings. That creature has wings. Therefore, that creature is a bird."

12. HYPOTHESIS CONTRARY TO FACT

• Definition: Treating hypothetical situations as facts for conclusions.

  • Example: "If an apple hadn't fallen on Newton, we wouldn't have discovered gravity."

13. OVERSIMPLIFICATION

• Definition: Reducing complexity to the point of losing essential details.

  • Example: "Success is solely due to hard work."

14. SLIPPERY SLOPE

• Definition: Assuming one small action will lead to extreme outcomes.

  • Example: "If same-sex marriage is legal, then people will demand to marry minors."

15. POST HOC (FALSE CAUSE)

• Definition: Mistaking correlation for causation.

  • Example: "Let's not take Bill on our picnic. Every time we take him, it rains."

16. POISONING THE WELL

• Definition: Discrediting an opponent ahead of time with negative information.

  • Example: "Oh, you are seeing Dr. Thomas? He gives me the creeps."

17. AD HOMINEM

• Definition: Attacking a person's character instead of their argument.

  • Example: "Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are dirty, lazy hippies."

18. RED HERRING

• Definition: Avoiding key issues by using irrelevant information.

  • Example: "My opponent talks about needing to reduce greenhouse gases but mentions nuclear weapons instead."

19. STRAW MAN

• Definition: Creating a distorted version of an argument and attacking it.

  • Example: "Wife: I'd rather have a dog. Husband: Why do you hate cats?"