Generalization and Maintenance in Applied Behavior Analysis

Definition: The extent to which a learned response is exhibited in untrained settings or in response to untrained stimuli.
Two Types:
- Stimulus Generalization
- Response Generalization

Definition: Exhibiting a trained response in untrained settings and to untrained stimuli.
Student demonstrates a learned skill in different situations.
Example:
- A student learns to button his shirt when asked.
- Generalization occurs when the student can button pants, coats, large and small buttons, and can do this at home, after using the restroom, and when putting his coat on in school.

Definition: Exhibiting untrained responses that serve the same function as the originally trained response.
Producing a response that has the same outcome as the response that was taught.
Example:
- A student learns to solve $2 + 3$ by counting on fingers.
- Response generalization occurs when the student begins to count in her head without being taught.

Skills are only functional if they occur in different contexts.
Example:
- Teaching a student to greet teachers at school.
- Without generalization, the student won't greet others like children at the playground, parents, or cashiers.
Multiple responses can serve the same function.
Example:
- A child asks for a snack by saying, “Can I have a cookie, please?”
- With response generalization, the student can ask for various items in different ways (e.g., "Can I have a hug, please?").
Generalization makes skills more functional and meaningful.

Learner emits behavior in response to multiple antecedent stimuli.
Example:
- Teaching a child to read “cat” on a flashcard. The child must be able to read the word when the font size and color are different or when the word appears in a book or worksheet.
Teach some, but not all, possible stimulus examples.
Example:
- Teaching a child to drink from a cup using three or four different cups.
- Periodically introduce a novel cup to test for generalization.
No set number of stimulus examples; depends on the student and skill.
Test untrained stimuli periodically.

Also known as multiple exemplar training.
Teaching multiple responses that serve the same function.
Example:
- Teaching a child to use a fork to feed himself.
- Teach the child to pierce food and scoop food with a fork.
- Without teaching, if the child is able to use a fork in other ways, such as twirling and scraping, this would show that response generalization has occurred.
The number of responses taught varies.

Identifying and bringing important stimuli from the natural environment into the teaching environment.
Making the teaching environment similar to the natural environment.
Consider when:
- Teaching in the natural setting is not possible.
- Teaching in the natural setting is difficult.
- You want to expose the learner to the range of situations the learner may encounter in the natural environment.
Examples:
- Job Skills: Bring office supplies and a similar desk into the teaching environment.
- Paying at the Grocery Store: Use a cash register, food, money, and a wallet in the teaching environment.
- Riding the Public Bus: Use rows of seats, loud noises, and other people in close proximity in the therapy room.

Teaching situations in which the target response should not be emitted.
Use in combination with other generalization strategies.
Example:
- Teaching a student to greet extended family members with a hug.
- Provide “don’t do it” examples, such as people at her job or the street crossing guard.
Gives practice in discriminating when to emit a response.

Changing non-critical aspects of the teaching environment frequently and randomly.
Makes it less likely that unimportant aspects will control the target response.
Elements to vary:
- Instructors
- Instructions
- Locations
- Times of day
- Noise level
Teaches the learner to attend to relevant environmental aspects only.
Example:
- A child learning to complete puzzles.
- Have the child complete the puzzle in different rooms, on different surfaces, and at different times of the day.

Consider the frequency, type, and amount of reinforcement in the natural setting.
Naturally occurring reinforcement differs from teaching reinforcement.
Example:
- Teaching a child to respond to a greeting.
- Fade the amount, type, and immediacy of reinforcement to match the natural environment.

Teaching in a way that the target response is prompted by a specific person or item in the natural environment.
Two methods:
- Arranging a contrived mediating stimulus (e.g., teaching material).
- Teaching self-monitoring skills.
Ensure the learner has succeeded with self-monitoring in the past.
Examples:
- Teaching Material: Using a written list of steps on a mobile device to make a sandwich at school and at home.
- Self-Monitoring: Using a timer on a cell phone to monitor on-task behavior at work.

Letting the learner know that variations to the target response are desirable.
Provide reinforcement when the learner emits an appropriate variation.
Example:
- Teaching a child to respond to “How are you?” with “I’m fine. How are you?”
- Reinforce variations such as “I’m okay. How are you?”
Tell the learner to emit a different response or arrange the environment to require a different response.