Exam Study Notes

Reign of Terror

• A period during the French Revolution characterized by extreme violence and executions of those suspected of being enemies of the revolution.

Marshall Plan

• A U.S. initiative post-World War II to provide financial aid to European countries for reconstruction purposes.
• Aimed to prevent the spread of communism by fostering economic stability.

Enlightenment

• An intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, and individualism.
• Challenged traditional authority and promoted ideas of liberty and equality.

Coup d’état

• A sudden seizure of government power, often executed by the military.

NATO

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
• A military alliance formed to provide collective security against potential threats. Includes the U.S. and many European countries.

Voltaire

• A French Enlightenment writer and philosopher.
• Advocated for freedom of speech and religion.

Ho Chi Minh

• A Vietnamese revolutionary leader.
• Led the fight for Vietnamese independence and later became the leader of North Vietnam.

Third Estate

• The common people of France before the French Revolution.
• They bore the burden of taxation and were treated unfairly by the aristocracy and clergy.

Separation of Powers

• The division of governmental authority among different branches (e.g., executive, legislative, judicial).
• Designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Glasnost

• A Russian term meaning "openness."
• Policy implemented in the Soviet Union to increase transparency and freedom of expression.

John Locke

• An English philosopher and Enlightenment thinker.
• Argued that individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Scientific Method

• A systematic approach to acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• Involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.

Treaty of Versailles

• The peace treaty that ended World War I.
• Imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, financial reparations, and acceptance of blame for the war.
• Contributed to resentment and instability in Germany, which later fueled the rise of Nazism.

Peninsular War

• A conflict in Spain and Portugal during the Napoleonic Wars.
• Spanish and Portuguese forces, with British support, fought against Napoleon’s army.

Containment

• A U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War.
• Aimed to prevent the spread of communism by containing it within its existing borders.

Beccaria

• An Italian criminologist and philosopher.
• Advocated for criminal justice reform, including the abolition of torture and the death penalty.

Battle of Trafalgar

• A significant naval battle during the Napoleonic Wars.
• The British Royal Navy, led by Lord Horatio Nelson, defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain.
• Established British naval supremacy.

Nationalism

• A strong feeling of pride in and loyalty to one’s nation or culture.
• Can be a unifying force but can also lead to conflict and hostility towards other nations.

Sepoy Mutiny

• A rebellion by Indian soldiers (sepoys) against British rule in 1857.
• Fueled by grievances over cultural insensitivity and discriminatory practices.
• Although the mutiny was suppressed, it marked a turning point in the Indian independence movement.

Storming of the Bastille

• A pivotal event in the French Revolution.
• A Parisian mob stormed the Bastille, a medieval fortress and prison, symbolizing royal authority.
• Signaled the start of the revolution.

Social Contract

• A philosophical concept that explains the relationship between individuals and their government.
• Individuals agree to give up some freedom and abide by laws in exchange for protection of their rights by the government.

Napoleonic Code

• A comprehensive legal system established by Napoleon Bonaparte in France.
• Influenced legal systems in many countries.
• Granted certain rights, but also curtailed some freedoms, especially for women.

Checks and Balances

• A principle of government in which different branches have the power to limit the actions of other branches.
• Prevents any one branch from becoming too dominant.

Concert of Europe

• A system of cooperation among European powers after the Napoleonic Wars.
• Aimed to maintain peace and stability by suppressing revolutions and upholding the existing order.

Napoleon Bonaparte

• A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution.
• Conquered much of Europe in the early 19th century.
• His ambition led to the Napoleonic Wars.
• Ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.

Telescope

• A tool used to observe distant objects, such as stars and planets.
• Important for astronomical discoveries.

Suez Canal

• A man-made waterway in Egypt connecting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
• Significantly reduces travel time for ships between Europe and Asia.

Hitler

• The dictator of Nazi Germany.
• Initiated World War II and implemented the Holocaust, the systematic genocide of Jews and other minorities.

Industrial Revolution

• A period of major technological advancements.
• Began in the late 18th century.
• Characterized by the shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing in factories.

Waterloo

• The site of Napoleon Bonaparte’s final defeat in 1815.
• Marked the end of the Napoleonic era.

Enlightenment (Reminder)

• A period when people focused on reason, freedom, and science.

Plebiscite

• A direct vote by eligible voters on a specific question or proposal.
• Often used to approve or reject a new constitution or leader.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
• His assassination in 1914 triggered the outbreak of World War I.

Korean War

• A conflict between North Korea and South Korea from 1950 to 1953.
• The United States supported South Korea, while China and the Soviet Union backed North Korea.
• Ended in a stalemate, with Korea remaining divided along the 38th parallel.

Declaration of Independence

• A statement adopted by the American colonies in 1776.
• Declared their independence from British rule.

Klemens von Metternich

• An Austrian statesman and diplomat.
• Played a key role in the Congress of Vienna.
• Advocated for the restoration of the old order and the suppression of revolutionary movements.

Trench Warfare

• A type of warfare common during World War I.
• Soldiers fought from dug-out trenches, resulting in static front lines and high casualties.

Copernicus

• A Renaissance-era astronomer.
• Proposed the heliocentric theory, which states that the Earth revolves around the Sun.

Heliocentric Theory

• The astronomical model that places the Sun at the center of the solar system, with the Earth and other planets revolving around it.
• Challenged the long-held geocentric theory, which positioned the Earth at the center.

Rousseau

• A Genevan philosopher and writer.
• Argued that governments should be based on the consent of the governed and should follow the general will of the people.

Alexander II

• A Russian Tsar who implemented significant reforms.
• Freed the serfs (poor farmers) in 1861.

Holy Alliance

• A coalition of European monarchies formed after the Napoleonic Wars.
• Aimed to suppress liberal and revolutionary ideas and maintain the conservative order.

Bastille

• Was a prison in France that people attacked to start the French Revolution.

U.S. Constitution

• The foundational document of the United States government, adopted in 1787.
• Establishes the structure and powers of the federal government and protects the basic rights of citizens.

Robespierre

• A radical leader during the French Revolution.
• Played a key role in the Reign of Terror.
• Eventually, he was overthrown and executed.

Truman Doctrine

• A U.S. foreign policy doctrine.
• Provided assistance to countries resisting communist influence after World War II.

Continental System

• Napoleon Bonaparte’s economic blockade against Great Britain.
• Aimed to cripple the British economy by preventing European countries from trading with Britain.

Galileo

• An Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer.
• Used the telescope to make astronomical observations that supported the heliocentric theory.

Balance of Power

• A concept in international relations.
• Aims to maintain stability by ensuring that no single nation becomes too dominant.

Final Solution

• The Nazi plan to exterminate the Jewish people during World War II.
• Resulted in the Holocaust.

India

• A country in South Asia that was under British rule until it gained independence in 1947.

Hundred Days

• The period between Napoleon Bonaparte’s return from exile and his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.

Natural Rights

• Fundamental rights inherent to all individuals.
• Include the rights to life, liberty, and property.

Congress of Vienna

• A conference of European powers held after the Napoleonic Wars.
• Aim was to restore stability and order to Europe by redrawing political boundaries and re-establishing monarchies.

38th Parallel

• The line of latitude that divides North Korea and South Korea.

Freedom of Speech

• The right to express one’s opinions and ideas without fear of censorship or punishment.
• A fundamental principle of democracy.

Louis-Napoleon

• Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew became president, then emperor, of France in the 1800s.

Nation-State

• A country where the population shares a common identity.
• Based on culture, language, or history.

Warsaw Pact

• A military alliance formed by the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Eastern Europe during the Cold War.
• Created in response to NATO.

Tennis Court Oath

• An event during the early stages of the French Revolution.
• Members of the Third Estate vowed to continue meeting until they had created a new constitution.

Cuban Missile Crisis

• A tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962.
• Caused by the presence of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba.
• The crisis was resolved diplomatically, narrowly averting a nuclear war.