the Imperial Republic
The Imperial Republic: Key Personalities
William McKinley
U.S. President from 1897 to 1901
Former Congressman and Ohio Governor
Recognized as the first modern president who established a Republican dynasty.
John Hay
U.S. Secretary of State from 1899 to 1905
Previously served as private secretary to Abraham Lincoln; noted diplomat
Exhibited particular interest in Asian affairs.
Theodore Roosevelt
U.S. President from 1901 to 1909
Varied career encompassing roles as author, cowboy, and politician
Prioritized order above all else
Guided by four key principles:
Willingness to use force to obtain order.
Emphasis on U.S. responsibility to ensure stability in both Latin America and Asia.
Belief that Anglo-Saxon values justified an aggressive foreign policy.
Refused to conduct foreign policy solely to acquire territory.
William Howard Taft
U.S. President from 1909 to 1913
Known as a distinguished jurist, but noted for his ineffectiveness in foreign policy execution.
The Imperial Republic: Factors Influencing 20th Century American Expansionism
Economic Factors
Experienced remarkable economic growth between 1860 and 1900.
Development of foreign markets for American goods.
Emergence of corporations aiming to dominate the international market.
Diplomatic Factors
Solidification of Anglo-American friendship:
The 1872 Treaty of Washington settled numerous outstanding differences between Britain and the U.S.
Geographic Factors
Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis:
Announced that the American frontier had vanished.
Advocated that a vigorous foreign policy could preserve unique American individualism and propagate American ideals globally.
Military Factors
Alfred Thayer Mahan's work, The Influence of Sea Power in History, 1660-1783 (1890):
His concepts cultivated the foundation for a significant U.S. naval construction program.
The Imperial Republic: Spanish-American War of 1898
Background
Cuba faced a series of revolutionary movements since 1850, prompting Spain to send a substantial military force for suppression.
The U.S. had traditionally held little respect for Spain.
President McKinley was apprehensive about chaos in Cuba yet sought to avoid annexation.
Key incidents leading to war:
de Lôme Letter (February 1898): Criticism of McKinley.
Sinking of the U.S.S. Maine (15 February 1898): a significant provocation.
McKinley prepared for war, leading to:
Congress approving the war declaration on 25 April 1898.
Teller Amendment: asserted that territorial acquisition was not a war goal.
Prosecution of the War
Admiral George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Philippines on 1 May 1898.
U.S. Navy also decimated the Spanish fleet in Santiago Harbor (3 July 1898).
Land operations in Cuba faced challenges, yet Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders" gained notable victory at San Juan Hill (1 July 1898).
Puerto Rico was invaded on 25 July 1898.
Hawaii was annexed through Congressional joint resolution on 12 August 1898.
The Treaty of Paris (10 December 1898) concluded the war, leading to:
Cuba was freed but not granted independence.
Puerto Rico and Guam ceded to the U.S.
The Philippines were purchased for $20 million.
Aftermath
Cuba:
McKinley opted not to annex Cuba.
The Platt Amendment was enshrined in the new Cuban Constitution, including:
U.S. rights to intervene in Cuban affairs.
Limitation of Cuban foreign debt.
99-year lease for a U.S. military base at Guantanamo Bay.
Infrastructure spending aimed at attracting foreign investment.
The Platt Amendment and the 1903 reciprocity agreement rendered Cuba effectively dependent on the U.S.
Puerto Rico:
The Foraker Act (1900) designated Puerto Rico as an "unincorporated territory" with no intentions of granting citizenship to Puerto Ricans or statehood.
The Insular Cases validated the legality of the Foraker Act.
Philippines:
The U.S. required control of all islands to maintain naval base operations in Manila Bay.
The U.S. confronted a rebellious movement led by Emilio Aguinaldo, resulting in:
The deaths of 15,000 rebels and 200,000 Filipino civilians before 1902.
The Imperial Republic: The Open Door in China
Background
Trade and missionary activities were primary motivations for American engagement in China.
Key treaties establishing a foothold in China:
Treaty of Nanking (1842): Conceded British control over Chinese ports and customs policy.
Treaty of Wangxia (1844): Granted the U.S. rights equal to any foreign power and established extraterritoriality.
Treaty of Tianjin (1858): Opened majority of China to U.S. trade.
Number of U.S. missionaries doubled to 1,000 between 1890 and 1900, with exports to China reaching $15 million in 1900, indicating an underdeveloped market potential.
Open Door Notes, 1899 and 1900
First Open Door Note (1899):
Secretary of State Hay's pursuit to endorse that China not be divided into closed spheres of influence among foreign powers.
Requested other major powers to charge foreigners no more than citizens for shipping and railroad privileges within spheres of influence.
Demand for the general Chinese tariff to apply in all spheres of influence.
Foreign powers effectively accepted the Open Door notes.
Boxer Rebellion (1900):
A violent uprising led by a Chinese military society seeking to expel foreign influences in China, eventually suppressed.
Nations like Germany and Japan attempted military intervention to solidify their spheres of influence.
Second Open Door Note (1900):
Called on foreign powers to honor Chinese territorial and administrative integrity, which had been implied previously.
Foreign powers again agreed to Open Door principles, facilitating American access to the Chinese market without heavy military presence.
The Imperial Republic: Theodore Roosevelt and Panama
Background
Great Britain had significant influence over Central American affairs in the early 19th century.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850): Established mutual non-construction of an isthmian canal without mutual consent and ensured neutrality.
A French effort by Ferdinand de Lesseps to construct the canal failed.
Securing American Rights for the Panama Canal
Roosevelt needed to amend the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, benefitting from improved Anglo-American relations via incidents such as the Boer War and the Alaska-Canada boundary resolution.
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901): Endowed the U.S. with the right to construct and fortify the canal.
Philippe Bunau-Varilla and William Cromwell lobbied Congress to favor the Panamanian canal route.
Hay-Herrán Treaty (1903): Proposed a $10 million payment to Colombia with an annual subsidy, which Colombian legislature rejected.
Bunau-Varilla instigated a revolt in Panama, gaining U.S. support.
The Panama Canal agreement was rapidly established by Bunau-Varilla and Hay, with the canal opening in 1914.
The Imperial Republic: The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
Monroe Doctrine (1823) outlined three main tenets:
Non-colonization of the New World by foreign powers.
Encapsulation of European conflicts within Europe.
Non-interference of Europeans in the Western Hemisphere.
Emerging Threats to the Monroe Doctrine
Growth of German naval power.
Intervention of European nations in the Central American debt collection (e.g., Venezuela in 1903).
Roosevelt recognized the necessity for the U.S. to act as a debt collector to enforce Monroe's principles.
Dominican Republic:
U.S. actions included the seizure of customs houses in 1904.
Dominican President Carlos Morales was compelled to sign an Executive Agreement transferring financial control to the U.S. and depend on U.S. military protection.
The Imperial Republic: William Howard Taft and Dollar Diplomacy
Dollar Diplomacy:
Focused on replacing military force with financial capital to achieve foreign policy objectives.
Successes in Latin America:
Costa Rica:
American railway magnate Minor Keith formed the United Fruit Company, nicknamed "The Octopus," which controlled vast enterprises in Costa Rica.
Nicaragua:
Dictator José Santos Zelaya posed a threat of extending isthmian canal rights to a European nation, leading to U.S. intervention that resulted in the replacement of Zelaya by Adolfo Diaz, who became entirely reliant on American financial support and military presence to sustain his regime.