Abnormal psychology
BLOA
Bloa - Caspi et al (2003)
Caspi Aim - investigate the role of gene mutation and epigenetics play in major depressive disorder
Caspi Sample - 847 New Zealand 26 year-olds They were all members of a cohort that had been assessed for mental health bi-yearly until they were 21.
Caspi Procedure - The sample was divided into 3 groups based on the alleles of the 5 HTT gene. Group 1: had two short alleles, group 2: had one short and one long, Group 3 had two long. The mutation of the gene is shorter alleles, 43% people have shorter alleles. The participants were asked to fill in a “Stressful life events“ questionnaire - asking the frequency of 14 different evens, including financial, employment, health and relationship stressors. They were asked between the ages of 21 to 26. They were also assessed for depression.
Caspi Results - People who had one or more short versions of the allele showed more symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in response to stressful life events. This effect was stronger with three or more events.
Caspi Evaluation - The study is correlational, no cause and effect relationship can be determined
Caspi Evaluation - The study assumes serotonin causes depression
Caspi Evaluation - The life events were self-reported, people who recalled negative life events may be more vulnerable to depression (Salience)
Caspi Evaluation - Some participants did not carry the gene mutation and became depressed, gene is not the sole case of depression
Bloa - Kendler et al. (2006)
Kendler Aim - The study aimed to determine the heritability of major depression in a large Swedish sample, identify gender differences, and examine genetic and environmental factors over time.
Kendler Sample - 15,493 twin pairs from the Swedish Twin Registry. Only twins with confirmed zygosity were included.
Kendler Procedure - Trained interviewers conducted telephone interviews between March 1998 and January 2003. They assessed lifetime major depression based on modified DSM-IV criteria. The interview also included questions about shared and individual-specific environments.
Kendler Results - Concordance rates for major depression were higher in women compared with men and in monozygotic twins compared with dizygotic twins. Major depression heritability was estimated at 0.38, which has been previously estimated. No association was found between years of cohabitation and major depression. There were no significant differences in the genetic and environmental contributions to depression across birth cohorts, including those pre- and post-World War II.
Kendler evaluation - Because the study is correlational, no cause and effect relationship can be determined.
Kendler evaluation - Specific genes were not identified; also, participants self-reported and diagnoses via telephone may affect validity.
Kendler evaluation - With the large sample size, focused on one population, findings are more reliable and are in agreement with previous studies.
Kendler evaluation - That may be vulnerable to self-reporting and possible gender differences in the ways symptoms of depression are reported.
Kendler evaluation - This study especially improved the reliability of European twin studies regarding the heritability of major depression.
Genetics Strengths - Empirical Evidence: Twin, family, and adoption studies consistently show that genetic factors play a role in depression, as demonstrated in research like Kendler et al. (2006).
Advances in Genetic testing: New genetic testing technologies allow researchers to identify specific genes that may link with depression, like 5-HTT, furthering our knowledge of its genetic etiology.
Explains Individual Differences: Genetic studies help explain why some individuals are more vulnerable to depression than others, even when exposed to similar environmental stressors.
Genetics weaknesses - Complexity of depression: Its challenging to isolate genetic causes. Genetics is very reductionsit.
Reductionist Approach: By focusing solely on genes, other critical factors may be overlooked, such as cognitive and sociocultural influences on depression, leading to an incomplete understanding of the disorder.
Correlational Limitations: Most research into genetics has been correlational; for this reason, no causation can be determined. It can only be inferred that some genes are associated with depression and not that genes cause depression.
BLOA strengths - Objective and Measurable: The biological approach makes use of factors that can be measured, which include neurotransmitter levels, hormone profiles, and structure of the brain. This therefore allows for an objective study with reliable findings.
Effective Treatments: Understanding depression’s biological basis has led to treatments like SSRIs, which can be effective for many patients by targeting biological mechanisms.
Supported by Research: Studies support the role of neurotransmitters, genetics, and brain structure in depression, making the biological approach well-supported by empirical evidence.
BLOA weaknesses - Reductionism: The biological perspective confines depression to biology alone and trivializes other, no less significant, causes or components, such as the cognitive, psychological, and sociocultural aspects.
Not Universally Effective: Biological treatments, with their use of medication, do not work for everyone, and for that reason, it cannot be said to be purely biological.
Ethical and Deterministic Implications: Biological explanations may lead to a deterministic view, suggesting people are “genetically destined” for depression, which could affect stigma and personal agency.
CLOA
Rumination - Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of a person’s distress. Rumination is the basis of Nolen-Hoeksema’s response styles theory.
Ruminations role - The person focuses on the symptoms of distress. Leading them to worry about their distress and the meaning behind it. This often causes the distress to grow and heavily impact the person's thinking. People who ruminate are more uncertain about solutions to problems than those who don’t ruminate. This often leads to them over-interpreting what is said or overanalysing what is occurring around them. Rumination adds to a negative evaluation of self and negative feelings towards the future - following Beck’s theory of depression.
Cloa - Nolen Hoeksema (2000)
Nolen Hoeksema Aim - conduct a prospective study of the role of rumination on symptoms related to depression
Nolen Hoeksema Sample - 1132 participants randomly From a community of adults in San Francisco - chosen by random digit dialing of telephone numbers
Nolen Hoeksema Procedure - Participants were clinically interviewed for 90 minutes in their homes two times over one year. The interview included tests including the Beck Depression Inventory, the SCID, the Beck Anxiety Inventory and the Hamilton Rating Scale for depression. Finally, they were given a rumination and coping questionnaire, they were asked to rate how often they think “Why do I react this way”, “I think about how sad I am” or ”I think I will lose my job if I don’t get better”.
Nolen Hoeksema Results - Participants who showed signs of MDD had a significantly higher score on ruminative responses than those who don’t. Those who had depression and improved had lower rumination scores than those who had depression and didn’t improve.
Nolen Hoeksema Evaluation - The study relied on self-report questionnaires as well as diagnosis through clinical interviews, there may have been participant variables or demand characteristics present. There were originally 200 more participants, although there was a small attrition rate, thone with the strongest symptoms dropped out of the study. There may have been a bias in the study. Weather the participants were being treated for depression was not. Mentioned. This may have influenced results
Cloa - Farb et al. (2011)
Farb Aim - To investigate whether brain responses to watching a movie would predict the onset of depression
Farb Sample - 16 formerly depressed participants and 16 health participants
Farb Procedure - Participants were given sad and neutral movie clips. A fMRI was used to measure brain activity to measure emotional and reactivity when watching the movie clips. The prediction was that activity in th medial prefrontal cortex predicted relapse. The prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain most active when people ruminate.
Farb Results - The formerly depressed participants would have higher activation in medial prefrontal cortex when watching sad clips, while healthy patients would have more activation in visual cortex. These responses were also linked to higher levels of self-reported ruumination. The results predicted activity in medial prefrontal cortex, which predicted a relapse. 10/16 of the formerly depressed participants experienced a repulse during an 18 month period.
Farb evaluation limited ability to determine neutral predictions of depression as the sample was small. Findings must be replicated in order to determine reliability
The ethical considerations of prompting a relapse or subjecting a vulnerable population to potential mental harm, which could be long term, is unethical as the probability of harm is high.
Rumination strengths - The relevance of rumination is supported by longitudinal, prospective studies Rumination has biological support
some people's lives have been enhanced by successful treatments that resulted from the practical application from rumination
Gender differences in the prevalence in depression can be explained by rumination
Rummination weaknesses - it is impossible to prove causation and resolve bidirectional ambiguity in correlational research
Its uncertain if depression results from or is caused by thought patterns
the Treatment Aetiology Fallacy: the mistaken notion that the success of a treatment reveals the cause of the disorder
CLOA strengths - Evidence from Research: Research on cognitive distortions by Beck and learned helplessness by Seligman along with many other studies underpin the cognitive approach very strongly.
Effective cognitive-based therapies: Starting from the cognitive model, cognitive behavioural therapy has widely proved to be effective in treating depression. CBT helps the patients to identify and change their negative thinking patterns, which again supports the role of cognition in depression.
Accounts for Individual Differences: The cognitive approach can explain individual differences in responses to similar life events because of its emphasis on the thought patterns and beliefs of the individual.
CLOA weaknesses - Reductionist: The cognitive approach could reduce depression to simplistic thinking and beliefs only, without even biological or sociocultural factors that may initiate it.
Issues of Causation: The negative thinking patterns are usually correlational, and it is hard to say whether it is the cause or result of depression.
Less Effective for Severe Depression: Cognitive interventions are less effective when given alone among people suffering from severe depression; it is mostly carried out in conjunction with medication, which shows that cognitive factors on their own cannot explain the disorder.
SCLOA
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) - "ACEs" refers to potentially traumatic childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, or dysfunctional households. It is believed that these events have an impact on mental health throughout life.
ACEs role - Long-Term Effects on Brain Development: ACE exposure can impair brain development, especially in areas linked to emotion control, stress response, and cognitive processing. Depression may become more likely as a result of this increased susceptibility.
Dysregulation of the Stress Response: ACEs may cause the stress response system to become chronically activated, which raises cortisol levels. This imbalance can eventually change how the body handles stress, increasing a person's vulnerability to depressive symptoms.
Trauma Transmission Across Generations: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) frequently fuel trauma cycles in families and communities, impacting parenting practices and raising the likelihood of depression in subsequent generations.
Connection to Social and Health Issues: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are linked to increased rates of substance misuse, poor physical health, and social instability, all of which can lead to the development and persistence of depression.
Scloa - Brown and Harris (1978)
Brown and Harris Aim - To investigate the social factors and life stressors contributing to depression in women.
Brown and Harris Sample - Surveyed 458 women from South London, focusing on biographical details and depressive episodes.
Brown and Harris Procedure - Semi-structured interviews to obtain detailed life histories, including life events, social class, and experiences of depression.
Brown and Harris Results - The prevalence of clinical depression in the past year was 8%. There were only a very small number of cases that did not appear to be related to an adverse life event or serious difficulty. Social class did influence depression risk: the odds ratio for working class women with children was four times greater in developing depression than middle-class women.
Emerged three major factors in the development of depression:
Protective Factors: High levels of intimacy thus nurturing positive self-esteem and resilience.
Vulnerability Factors: The risk factors are a loss of mother before age 11, lack of a confiding relationship, more than three children under 14, and unemployment.
Provoking Agents: Acute or ongoing stressors that precipitate feelings of grief, hopelessness, and futility-especially among the vulnerable women lacking social support.
Brown and Harris evaluation - Offered a model to study the interrelationship between the social stressors and mental health
Semi-structured interviews added depth and credence to the findings
The finding of this study, based on a sample of women subjects, may not generalize to men though the relation of stress to depression may hold across genders.
Depended on self-reported depressive episodes, which might be challenging to measure the correct extent of depression.
Scloa - Micheal Meaney (1988)
Micheal Meaney Aim - To review the long-term effects of early-life stress on brain structures and, in particular, investigate how early-life stress in rats regulates hippocampal function and cognitive deficits in adulthood.
Micheal Meaney Sample - Rat pups were studied, with a focus on those reared in different environmental conditions which resulted in variable maternal nurturing, as it affects their stress responses later in life.
Micheal Meaney Procedure - The study observed rat pups reared by nurturing mothers, which are characterized by high levels of licking and grooming, and non-nurturing mothers, which show low levels of grooming. These pups, while growing up, were then exposed to various stressors, and their cognitive abilities, stress responses, and hippocampal functioning were followed through adulthood.
Micheal Meaney Results - Early life stress did not damage the hippocampus right away but instead had a progressive dysfunction in response to an overactive HPA axis that results in high levels of cortisol, causing cell death in the hippocampus.
Rats who received no nurturing, when they grew up, were much more anxious and cognitively impaired compared to rats receiving nurturing, who remained calm and showed normal levels of cognitive function.
The study also showed that nurturing behaviour by mothers led to the expression of the GR gene, which controls the stress response and is protective of the hippocampus against the deleterious effects of stress.
Micheal Meaney Evaluation - This experiment by Meaney was majorly important in explaining the lifelong effect of stress during early life on cognitive functioning, with especial emphasis on the cause of stress-induced changes in the brain that eventually result in disorders such as depression and cognitive decline.
The ecological validity of this study was low, as it was done under artificial laboratory conditions that cannot totally reflect real-life stressors of human environments.
the research design has to consider that the findings cannot be generalized directly on human subjects due to the fact that the subjects were rats, even though similar patterns of stress and decline in cognition have been found in humans through disorders such as Alzheimer's.
ACEs strengths - Long-Term Impact: ACEs have significant long-term effects on mental health, indicating their importance in the study of psychology.
Brain Development: Evidence shows ACEs impair brain development related to emotion control, stress response, and cognitive processing.
Stress Response Dysregulation: Chronic activation of the stress response system due to ACEs can lead to increased vulnerability to mental illnesses, including depression.
Generational Trauma: ACEs contribute to cycles of trauma, impacting not only individuals but also families and communities across generations.
Connection to Social Issues: ACEs are linked to various social and health problems, enriching the understanding of their role in not just mental health but broader societal challenges.
ACEs weaknesses - Causation Complexity: Establishing direct causation can be challenging, as many individuals may experience ACEs without developing depression.
Variability of Impact: The impact of ACEs can differ widely among individuals, making it difficult to predict outcomes based solely on ACE exposure.
Research Limitations: Much of the existing research relies on self-reporting, which may introduce bias or underreport the prevalence of ACEs.
Lack of Comprehensive Factors: ACEs do not account for protective factors and resilience present in some individuals, which can mitigate negative outcomes.
SCLOA Strengths - Considers Environmental and Social Influences: The sociocultural approach underscores external causes such as poverty, marital dynamics, social alienation, and cultural expectations that offer a broader perspective on depression.
Evidence-Based Practice: ACEs and Social Support The best available science on ACEs and social support suggests that sociocultural variables make a difference: trauma, discrimination, and lack of support are associated with a high vulnerability to depression.
Culturally Sensitive: This approach recognizes that depression may manifest differently across cultures and acknowledges that risk factors and coping strategies vary by cultural context, promoting a more inclusive understanding of mental health.
SCLOA weaknesses - Difficult to Isolate Sociocultural Factors: Most of the time, it is difficult to tease apart the contributions of the sociocultural factors from the biological and cognitive ones because they often interact to produce depression.
Measurement Challenges: Most of the sociocultural variables, such as social support, stigma, and cultural norms, are subjective in nature and thus very hard to measure with reliability; this could potentially limit the precision of the findings.
Less emphasis on individual factors: The sociocultural perspective neglects individual differences in personal resilience or genetic predisposition that also influence depression.