Britain: Migration, Empires and the people c. 790 to the Present Day (AQA)

Part One: Conquered and Conquerors

c. 790 - 1066: Vikings and Anglo-Saxons:

• Vikings: Scandinavian pirates and traders

  • Reasons for Viking invasions: Overpopulation and political instability in Scandinavia (push factors) as well as opportunities for wealth (gold, silver, slaves), fertile land, and trade in the new land (pull factors).

• Danelaw: Parts of Northern and Eastern England controlled by Danish Vikings as a result of their conquest of those lands, which the English kings allowed them to keep in exchange for loyalty to England.

• Alfred the Great: King of Wessex from 871-899; wanted to unite England as a whole kingdom; defeated Viking Guthrum in the Battle of Edington, preventing the vikings from invading the entirety of England; built fortified towns (burhs) and the first English navy to defend England from the Vikings; promoted education and learning, and introduced a new tax code.

• King Cnut: Viking who took control of England from 1016-1035; 

  • Married Emma of Normandy, widow of the previous leader; Also became King of Denmark and Normandy, creating a North Sea Empire based around Scandinavia

A Norman Kingdom and ‘Angevin’ Empire:

• The breakdown of Cnut’s empire after his death led to political instability in the nation, allowing Normandy in Northern France to invade in 1066. As many Normans migrated to England, they introduced the French language and culture to the existing people there, which influenced England greatly. 

• Henry II:  English king who ruled from the mid to late 12th century; during this period, England was a part of the Angevin Empire, which was the land between the Scottish border and the Pyrenees mountains. 

• During the 12th century, the Angevin Empire managed to gain control over eastern Ireland, setting the stage for more conquests in the future.

• King John: Ruled from the late 12th century to the early 13th century; He lost control of Normandy to France in the early 13th century, and further angered barons by fighting with the pope and levying taxes on them; as a result, they forced him to sign the Magna Carta, resulting in a loss of his monarchical power. 

The Birth of English Identity:

• The losses of French land in earlier centuries, and the French king taking back most of the rest of that land in the 14th century, led King Edward III to invade France, as he believed that the land belonged to him; this marked the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War

• The war ultimately ended in a loss for Britain, but they had many successful battles that became historically coveted

• The Battles at Crecy, Agincourt, and Poitiers were significant wins for the British, which led to increased British nationalism among the people; while this spirit was initially felt by only the British, it served as a helping hand later on to keep unity between Britain and France.

Part Two: Looking West

Economic Conditions in Britain (1500s):

• Unemployment rose and wages were low.

• The American colonies offered opportunities for wealth through sugar and tobacco plantations.

Spanish Colonization and British Privateers:

• In the late 15th century, the Spanish began colonizing the Americas and became wealthy from the resources there.

• To combat Spanish dominance, the British used privateers—people with government approval to steal from Spanish ships and split the earnings.

• Those who stole without government approval or kept all the earnings were known as pirates.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

Started in the 16th century after the Spanish began to colonize the Americas; They tried to enslave the indigenous people, but many died or ran away, so they turned to importing West and Central African people instead

• It was the largest forced migration in history, lasting over 300 years and trafficking over 12 million people. Over 2 million Africans died on the way to the Americas, in a treacherous journey known as the Middle Passage

• John Hawkins: Kidnapped over 300 enslaved Africans from a Portuguese boat and sold them illegally in the Caribbean

• The slave trade caused the African Diaspora (spreading people of African descent all over the world)

• The British plantations led to environmental damage in lands in Barbados and the West Indies; They created an over-reliance on sugar production in those places, meaning the wealth of the economy was based on how much sugar was exported. The British also created a slave code that supported slavery in these areas

  • Economic effects: Many claim the slave trade gave way to the Industrial Revolution in Britain; it created excess capital for investment, provided labor (slaves), and expanded cities; British colonies became very wealthy as a result

Colonisation in North America:

English Involvement in the Americas:

• The English government became involved in overseas expansion due to the desire for wealth and to prevent Spanish colonization in the Americas.

• Queen Elizabeth I encouraged Walter Raleigh to establish a colony on Roanoke Island in the 1580s.

• In 1606, a permanent colony was established in Jamestown, Virginia.

• In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers left England due to religious persecution and established the Plymouth colony with the Mayflower Compact.

Relations with Indigenous Peoples:

• Initially, local tribes helped the settlers adapt to their environment.

• However, in many cases, such as with the Jamestown settlers and Powhatan people, the English:

  • Took land that belonged to the Indigenous people, leading to conflicts and wars.

  • Brought diseases like smallpox and measles, devastating the local populations.

  • Destroyed the Indigenous people's way of life.

Indentured Servants:

• British (and some Irish) people migrated to the Americas at the expense of plantation owners.

• They repaid their passage by working for a set number of years.

• In theory, after completing their service, they would receive land and be granted freedom.

War of Independence:

• Rising tensions between the colonies and Britain, stemming from increased political and economic control, led to the American War of Independence starting in 1776.

• In 1781, the British surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown.

• In 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed, marking the end of the war and securing a victory for the colonies.

• The 13 colonies officially broke away from Britain.

Migrations to Britain:

Walloons in the 1560s:

• Walloons (Flemish-speaking people from present-day Belgium) fled to Britain in the 1560s to escape the rule of the Duke of Alba in Belgium.

Huguenot Protestants:

• In 1572, after the Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day in Paris, where over 10,000 Huguenot Protestants were murdered, many Huguenots fled to Britain.

• More Huguenots fled to Britain in 1680 when a royal order protecting them was revoked and they faced attacks.

  • Many faced a difficult journey on their way to England.
    
    

Palatines from Germany (1703):

• After the passage of the Foreign Protestants Naturalisation Act in 1703, many Palatines (Protestants from present-day Germany) came to England to escape:

  • French Catholic landlords,

  • Poor harvests

  • The hope of a better future.

Highland Clearances (1750-1860):

• The Highland Clearances were the forced removal of people living in the Scottish Highlands between 1750 and 1860.

• Many of those removed during the clearances migrated to England.

Ulster Plantations:

• After a group of Ulster Catholics fled, Protestant settlers from Scotland planned to take over the area to make it fully Protestant.

• Although they did not gain full control, they were able to live alongside the native Catholics in the region.

Part Three: Expansion and Empire

Expansion in India:

East India Company Formation (17th Century):

• The East India Company was a private trading company started by English merchants to access goods from Asia like spices, cotton, and indigo dye.

• After failing to compete with the French and Dutch in the East Indies, the English shifted focus to southern India, where they purchased land and established Fort St. George.

Early Relations with the Mughal Empire:

• English traders were initially welcomed by Mughal rulers, and both groups benefited from trade.

• However, as the English expanded, they demanded more trading privileges.

• When denied, this led to the Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690).

  • The war ended in a small loss for the English, who were forced to pay a fine.

The Battle of Plassey (1757):

• By the 1700s, the British and French had the largest trading empires in India.

• Tensions grew as the British believed the ruler of Bengal favored the French.

• The Battle of Plassey was fought between the British (led by Robert Clive) and the Nawab of Bengal.

  • The British won, defeated the nawab, removed the French East India Company, and installed a puppet ruler

Effects on Indian Society:

• Some Indian princes were removed from power, while others who remained loyal to the British were allowed to stay.

• Indian workers suffered greatly:

  • Forced to sell goods at low prices
    Had to buy British goods at high prices

  • This led to widespread poverty, leaving many vulnerable to famines and disasters.

Indian Rebellion (1857):

• Relations between Indian soldiers (sepoys) and British authorities were tense.

• Tensions escalated with rumors that bullet cartridges were greased with beef and pork fat—offensive to both Muslims and Hindus.

• This sparked the Indian Rebellion of 1857, resulting in the deaths of:

  • Hundreds of British

  • Thousands of Indians

• The British eventually restored control over India.

Expansion in Africa:

Post-Abolition Relations:

• After abolishing the Transatlantic Slave Trade, relations between Britain and Africa improved somewhat.

• However, the British still pursued African wealth and sought to dominate trade along Africa's west coast.

Scramble for Africa:

• A period when European powers cooperated and competed to conquer African lands and divide the continent among themselves.

• Britain participated heavily in this process to expand its empire and economic power.

Cecil Rhodes:

• A British businessman and imperialist who played a key role in Britain's territorial expansion in Africa.
  He was influential in gaining control over many African territories.

• Made significant political and military decisions, including leading Britain into war against the Boers (Dutch settlers) in South Africa.

British Control by the 20th Century:

• By the early 1900s, Britain controlled large regions of southern, eastern, and western Africa.

• This marked the height of British imperial influence on the African continent.

Migrations to, from, and within Britain:

• Irish: Due to much of the food in Ireland being exported to Britain, indigenous Irish people were left only with potatoes; however, when the Irish potato famine hit, many Irish left Ireland to increase their chances of survival in Britain; many settled in port cities

• Jewish: Arrived from Eastern Europe in large numbers in the late 1800s, often settled near the docks, were often poor, and usually ended up in sweatshops; the English didn’t like their presence because they felt that the Jewish people were taking their jobs

• Transportation: A form of punishment that involved sending convicts to British colonies to work on plantations

• Many Irish and Scottish people migrated within the British Empire

• Many Indians also migrated to southern and eastern Africa, helping to build railways, bridges, and roads, as well as being important factors in the African economy

• As a result of the Industrial Revolution and improved tools, many people moved inward to cities to make money, as there were more jobs there 

Part Four: Britain in the 20th Century

Post-World War I Developments:

• After WWI, the Ottoman Empire was defeated and its lands were divided between Britain and France.

• Britain gained Iraq and Palestine, giving it access to oil and control over strategic routes like the Suez Canal.

Post-World War II Decline:

• After WWII, Britain’s economic and physical state was significantly worse than after the first war—cities were destroyed, and there were shortages of many goods.

• In 1941, Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, declaring that nations should be free from imperial oppression.

Indian Independence:

• Mahatma Gandhi became a major figure in India’s independence movement by using nonviolent protest, notably leading the Salt March, which gained international attention.

• India gained independence in 1947, and Britain withdrew from the Middle East in 1948.

The Suez Crisis (1956):

• Egyptian President Nasser took back control of the Suez Canal, stripping Britain of its shares.

• In response, Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt and briefly retook the canal.
  However, under pressure from the United States, Britain was forced to withdraw.

African Nationalism & Independence Movements:

• African nationalist movements intensified, challenging British rule:

  • Ghana: The Accra riots helped spark the independence movement; Kwame Nkrumah became the first leader of an independent Ghana.

  • Nigeria: The Mau Mau revolt prompted independence talks with Britain. Eventually, Jomo Kenyatta became Nigeria's first prime minister (note: Kenyatta actually led Kenya, not Nigeria—let me know if you'd like help correcting that detail).

The Legacy of the Empire:

The Windrush Generation:

• After WWII, Britain needed workers to help rebuild the country.

• Many Caribbean people migrated to Britain hoping for better opportunities.
  The 1948 Nationality Act granted Commonwealth citizens the right to settle in Britain, encouraging this migration.

• This movement brought greater cultural diversity and had a significant impact on British society.

Claudia Jones:

• A key figure in supporting the Caribbean community in Britain.

• Founded the ‘West Indian Gazette’, a newspaper focused on Caribbean news and culture, helping immigrants adjust to life in Britain.

• Organized the Notting Hill Carnival, a celebration of West Indian culture that continues today.

South Asian Migration:

• After the Partition of India in 1947, violence and upheaval caused millions to migrate, with thousands settling in Britain to escape the conflict.

Ugandan Asians:

• In the 1970s, Ugandan President Idi Amin expelled all Ugandan Asians from the country.

• Britain resettled 27,000 of these refugees, providing them permanent residence.

The Falklands War (1982):

• Conflict between Britain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.

• Under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Britain successfully defended the islands, retaining control.

Britain’s Relationship with Europe and Its Impact:

• Britain joined the EEC (European Economic Community) in 1973.

• The EEC became the EU (European Union) in 1992 with the Maastricht Treaty.

• A key feature of the EU is freedom of movement, allowing people to live and work freely between member countries.

• This agreement led to high levels of migration both into and out of Britain:

  • Around 2 million British people work in other countries outside the EU.

  • Around 1.9 million people from other EU countries live and work in the UK.

• Britain's strong economy made it an attractive destination for EU migrants seeking jobs and better opportunities.