U.S. History: The Cold War and Postwar Society

PERIOD 8: 1945­ - 1980

Overview of Post World War II America

  • In 1945, the United States emerged from World War II with the world's largest and strongest economy.

  • Americans were eager to return to civilian life despite fears of economic depression.

  • During this era, several significant transformations began due to the fall of colonial empires, the spread of Communism, and changes in the global economy.

  • At home, Americans saw robust economic growth during the 1960s, with minimal competition as other global economies recovered from the war.

Key Domestic Policies and Programs

  • The Democratic Party expanded on the New Deal by enacting major domestic programs:

    • Medicare

    • Aid to education

    • Civil rights advancements for African Americans and women

Cold War Context

  • U.S. foreign policy was shaped predominantly by the Cold War against Communist governments.

  • Limited wars in Korea and Vietnam resulted in significant U.S. casualties (over 100,000 lives).

  • By the late 1960s, frustration regarding the Vietnam War and opposition to civil rights initiatives began to undermine the Democratic majority, leading to a conservative resurgence in the 1980s.

Historical Debate

  • Historians debate when postwar prosperity transformed into pessimism:

    • Some point to 1968, characterized by riots, assassinations, and anti-Vietnam War sentiment.

    • Others highlight the mid-1970s when wage growth stagnated for average Americans.

Chapter 26: Truman and the Cold War, 1945­ - 1952

  • Key Concept 8.1: The U.S. asserted its global leadership post-World War II, impacting domestic and international realms.

  • Key Concept 8.2: Civil rights movements and liberal government efforts generated varied political and cultural reactions.

  • Key Concept 8.3: Changes in the economic and demographic landscape significantly influenced American society, politics, and culture.

Truman's Inaugural Address Quotation

  • "Communism holds that the world is so deeply divided into opposing classes that war is inevitable. Democracy holds that free nations can settle differences justly and maintain lasting peace."

Postwar Domestic Challenges

The Transition to Civilian Life

  • 15 million American military personnel returned to civilian jobs post-war, facing employment and housing challenges.

  • Initial fears of an economic downturn did not materialize; per capita income increased due to wartime savings.

  • High consumer demand in autos and housing introduced unprecedented prosperity, peaking in the 1950s.

GI Bill of Rights (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944)

  • Aimed to assist 15 million veterans transitioning to civilian life.

  • Over 2 million veterans utilized the benefit to pursue higher education, leading to a postwar boom in colleges.

  • Veterans received $16 billion in low-interest, government-backed loans for buying homes and starting businesses, stimulating economic expansion.

Baby Boom

  • The postwar era saw a significant increase in marriages and births, yielding approximately 50 million babies between 1945-1960.

  • This generation impacted social institutions and economic life, transforming societal norms regarding family and work.

Suburban Growth

  • The housing demand led to construction booms; William J. Levitt's Levittown exemplified suburban development with 17,000 mass-produced homes.

  • Government-insured, tax-deductible mortgages made suburban living accessible, facilitating a demographic shift from urban cities to suburbs.

  • Inner cities faced economic decline and racial division due to this mass suburban migration.

Sunbelt Migration

  • War-induced displacement resulted in individuals relocating to the Sunbelt states (California to Florida) for economic opportunities.

  • Military spending during the Cold War financed this demographic shift, altering political power dynamics across regions.

Postwar Politics and Truman's Leadership

Harry S. Truman

  • Truman succeeded FDR as president after the latter's death in 1945, evolving into a decisive leader with a straightforward style.

  • Aimed to maintain New Deal policies while addressing the challenges posed by the Cold War.

Economic Program and Civil Rights

Employment Act of 1946

  • Proposed by Truman in September 1945 to stimulate economic growth through:

    • Full employment commitment

    • National health insurance plans

    • Minimum wage increase recommendations

  • The final version enacted (Employment Act of 1946) created the Council of Economic Advisers for promoting national economic welfare.

Inflation and Labor Disputes

  • Truman wanted to maintain price controls to curb inflation.

  • Price control relaxation led to inflation rates nearing 25% in 1946.

  • Over 4.5 million workers struck, causing economic disruption, to catch up on years of wage stagnation.

  • Truman intervened during strikes, seizing mines and keeping them operational during miners' strikes.

Civil Rights Initiatives

  • Truman utilized executive authority to combat racial discrimination, bypassing Congress where southern Democrats held influence.

  • Established the Committee on Civil Rights in 1946 and enhanced the Justice Department's role in aiding civil rights causes.

  • In 1948, he mandated the desegregation of the military and the federal government.

  • Proposed the Fair Employment Practices Commission to prevent hiring discrimination, which faced legislative blockades.

Political Landscape Shifts

Republican Control in 1946

  • A conservative shift in the electorate led to Republican majorities in Congress by late 1946, primarily due to inflation and labor unrest.

  • This Congress attempted tax cuts aimed at upper-income Americans, which Truman vetoed.

  • Efforts to amend the Constitution also moved to roll back some New Deal labor rights.

Constitutional Amendments and Labor Laws

  • Twenty-second Amendment (1951): Limited presidential terms to two full terms, responding to FDR's election to four terms.

  • Taft-Hartley Act (1947): Aimed at curbing union power, provisions included:

    • Outlawing the closed shop

    • Allowing states to pass right-to-work laws

    • Outlawing secondary boycotts

    • Granting the president the ability to impose an 80-day cooling-off period before strikes endangering national safety.

Election of 1948

Background

  • Truman's popularity dipped as he entered the 1948 presidential campaign facing challenges from within the Democratic Party:

    • Liberal Democrats formed the Progressive party, led by Henry Wallace.

    • Southern Democrats (Dixiecrats) rebelled due to civil rights support, led by J. Strom Thurmond.

    • Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, favored in polls, leading to a cautious campaign.

Campaign Developments

  • Truman toured the country denouncing the Republican Congress with energetic speeches, gaining public support.

  • Surprising pollsters, Truman won decisively with a popular vote of 2 million over Dewey (electoral vote: 303 to 189).

Presidential Election Results (1948)

  • Dewey: 45% of the popular vote

  • Wallace: 2%

  • Thurmond: 2%

Fair Deal Initiatives

  • Post-victory, Truman advocated for the Fair Deal program, which included:

    • National health care insurance

    • Education funding

    • Civil rights legislation

    • Public housing funding

  • Most initiatives were blocked by Congress, with only a wage increase and Social Security expansions passing.

Origins and Developments of the Cold War

Nature of the Cold War

  • The Cold War was marked by the rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, focusing on differing ideologies and expansionist policies.

  • The U.S. viewed itself as a champion of free world against Communism.

U.S.-Soviet Relations Pre-1945

  • Historical distrust of the Soviet Union predates WWII, rooted in events like the Bolshevik Revolution (1917) and the Red Scare (1919).

  • Post-WWII dynamics complicated alliances, with the temporary Soviet support during the war ending swiftly as distrust resurfaced.

Founding of the United Nations

  • Established in 1945 to promote international peace, with key roles assigned to the five major allies from WWII (U.S., UK, France, China, USSR).

  • Initial intentions for collaboration quickly became hampered by conflicting ideologies, especially around issues like nuclear disarmament with the Baruch Plan rejected by the Soviets.

Communist Satellite States

  • By 1946, Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe and the imposition of Communist regimes led to fears of expansionism.

  • Elections, held under Soviet auspices, often led to manipulated outcomes favoring Communist candidates, alarming the West.

Occupation of Germany

  • Postwar, Germany was divided into occupation zones by Allied forces, with increasing tension surrounding the establishment of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) as a Communist state amidst conflicts over economic recovery vs. reparations.

Iron Curtain Speech

  • In March 1946, Churchill's Iron Curtain speech highlighted the emerging divide in Europe and called for unity among Western democracies against the expansion of Communism.

Containment Policy

  • Adopting a containment strategy laid out by top advisers in 1947, Truman aimed to prevent the spread of Soviet influence.

  • George Kennan advocated for a long-term, patient containment approach against Soviet expansionism.

  • Truman’s containment policy was first implemented in response to Communist threats in Greece and Turkey, leading to economic and military aid packages (Truman Doctrine).

Marshall Plan

  • Announced in 1947, this extensive aid program aimed to rebuild war-torn European economies, ultimately distributing $12 billion to Western Europe.

  • Soviets rejected help fearing dependence on U.S.; the Plan solidified West European stability and U.S. economic growth, deepening East-West animosities.

Berlin Airlift (1948-1949)

  • In response to the Soviet blockade of Berlin, the U.S. initiated an airlift to supply West Berlin, ultimately leading to the establishment of two separate German states (West and East Germany).

  • This operation demonstrated U.S. commitment to containing Communism without resorting to conflict.

NATO Formation

  • In 1949, the U.S. and ten other nations formed NATO, a military alliance to safeguard Western Europe from potential Soviet aggression.

  • This marked a shift from the U.S. policy of non-alignment to active involvement in European defense.

National Security Act (1947)

  • This act reformed the U.S. military infrastructure by creating the Department of Defense, National Security Council, and the Central Intelligence Agency for better coordination of Cold War policy.

Development of Nuclear Arms Race

  • Following the Soviet atomic bomb test in 1949, an arms race intensified, prompting the development of new, more destructive weaponry (e.g., hydrogen bomb).

  • The NSC-68 report highlighted the need for increased military spending and alliances in response to perceived Communist threats.

Cold War in Asia

Rebuilding Japan

  • Post-WWII, Japan was under exclusive U.S. control, leading to changes in governance under General MacArthur, who established a democratic government.

  • Two treaties in 1951 solidified military alliances, allowing U.S. bases to remain in Japan, while it became a crucial ally against Communism.

The Chinese Civil War

  • After WWII, civil war resumed in China between Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) and Communists (led by Mao Zedong), with U.S. support dwindling for the Nationalists.

  • By the end of 1949, the Communists established control over mainland China, leading to U.S. non-recognition of the People's Republic until 1979.

Korean War (1950-1953)

  • Divided along the 38th parallel, Korea experienced conflict when North Korea invaded South Korea.

  • Truman's administration framed this military response as a police action under UN auspices rather than declaring war.

  • General MacArthur's counteroffensive fared well initially until massive Chinese reinforcements turned the tide against UN forces.

  • The war ebbed into a stalemate, concluding with an armistice in 1953 after significant casualties.

Political Consequences of the Cold War

Domestic Political Landscape

  • The Cold War climate fostered a second Red Scare, leading to heightened scrutiny and suspicion towards suspected Communist influences in the U.S.

  • The Loyalty Review Board, Smith Act prosecutions, and the House Un-American Activities Committee all exemplified heightened anti-Communist sentiments.

Key Espionage Cases

  • Hiss Case: Alger Hiss was tried and convicted of perjury amid accusations of espionage for the Soviets.

  • Rosenberg Case: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for espionage, with their trial exhibiting the tension between civil liberties and national security.

McCarthyism

  • Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited fears of Communist infiltration, making public accusations that benefitted from national paranoia.

  • His downfall came during televised hearings, where aggressively bullying tactics backfired, leading to censure by the Senate.

Conclusion

Truman in Retirement

  • After two terms and significant challenges, Truman opted for retirement in Missouri, reflecting on a mixed legacy marked by difficult decisions and eventual public respect.

Historical Perspectives

  • Discussions among historians differ regarding the origins of the Cold War, focusing on either Soviet expansionist policies or American responses to perceived threats.