Comprehensive Study Notes on the Mughal Empire

Political Background of 16th-Century India

• In the 16th century CE, India (Bharat) experienced widespread political disunity and disarray.

• The Delhi Sultanate had significantly shrunk in size and influence, with several provincial regions asserting independence from its control.

• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate.

• Governors of Bengal, Sind, Multan, and Jaunpur also broke free from central authority.

• Regional rulers in Mewar, Malwa, Gujarat, and Khandesh no longer owed allegiance to the Delhi Sultanate.

• The Deccan and Southern regions were dominated by powerful regional entities, including the Bahmani kingdom and the Vijayanagara Empire.

• Taking advantage of the absence of a strong central power, the Mughals invaded India and established their rule in Delhi.

Origins and Establishment: Babur (1526–1530 CE)

• The term "Mughal" is derived from the word "Mongol". The Mughals were direct descendants of the Mongols.

• Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, the King of Kabul, was a direct descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan.

• Lured by accounts of India's immense wealth and splendour, Babur sought to expand his domain into the Indian subcontinent.

• Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab, invited Babur to assist him in defeating Ibrahim Lodi, the ruling Sultan of Delhi.

The First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE)

• Babur achieved victory by skillfully combining light field artillery with cavalry.

• Indian armies were accustomed to large guns but were unfamiliar with light field artillery and foot soldiers' light guns (muskets).

• Tactical Innovations Employed by Babur:

  • Approximately $700$ carts were tied together with ropes/chains to form a protective barrier, leaving gaps wide enough for cavalry charges.

  • Dummy guns were placed in between real guns to create the illusion of a significantly larger force.

  • Troops were strategically deployed behind the protective row of carts.

• Comparison of Forces:

  • Ibrahim Lodi commanded a massive army exceeding $100,000$ ($1\,\text{lakh}$) soldiers and over $100$ war elephants.

  • Despite numerical inferiority, Babur's superior tactics halted the progress of Lodi's army at the cart barrier.

  • Lodi's slow-moving war elephants were disrupted and panicked by artillery and musket fire from behind the carts.

  • Babur executed a decisive, furious cavalry charge from behind the enemy positions, trapping Ibrahim Lodi's army on both sides in a sandwich formation and routing them.

Subsequent Conquests and Death

• Battle of Khanua (1527 CE): Babur defeated Maharana Sangram Singh (popularly known as Rana Sanga), the King of Mewar, near Fatehpur Sikri using superior military tactics and artillery.

• Battle of Ghagra (1529 CE): Babur defeated the Afghan forces on the banks of the Ghagra River.

• These consecutive victories established Babur firmly on the throne of Delhi, creating an empire that stretched from Kabul to present-day Bihar, with Delhi as its capital.

• Babur died in 1530 CE after a brief reign of only $4\,\text{years}$.

Humayun and Sher Shah Suri

The Reign and Exile of Humayun (1530–1540 CE & 1555–1556 CE)

• Babur's son, Humayun, ascended the throne of Delhi in 1530 CE.

• Humayun faced immediate challenges as conquered regions attempted to break free, lacking his father's military and administrative capabilities.

• The primary challenge to Humayun came from Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan governor of present-day Bihar.

• Battle of Chausa (1539 CE): Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun.

• Battle of Kannauj (1540 CE): Sher Shah Suri again defeated Humayun, forcing him to flee to Persia, where he lived in exile for $15\,\text{years}$.

• Restoration and Death: In 1555 CE, Humayun returned from exile and recaptured Delhi, Lahore, and Agra. However, he died the following year in 1556 CE, ending his brief second reign.

Interregnum of Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545 CE)

• After defeating Humayun, Sher Shah Suri established his capital at Delhi and ruled for $5\,\text{years}$.

• He proved to be a highly capable leader and administrator, bringing widespread crime under control.

• Infrastructure Reforms:

  • Constructed the Grand Trunk Road (Sadak-i-Azam), spanning approximately $3000\,\text{km}$ from East Bengal to Peshawar.

  • Built an extensive network of caravanserais (inns) for travellers along major routes.

  • Planted shade trees and dug wells along public roads.

Case Study: Akbar (1556–1605 CE)

Early Life and Accession

• Akbar was crowned emperor in 1556 CE at the age of $13\,\text{years}$.

• Due to his youth, his tutor and mentor, Bairam Khan, managed the administration on his behalf.

• Adil Shah, the nephew of Sher Shah Suri, attempted to reclaim Delhi following Humayun's death.

• Second Battle of Panipat (1556 CE): Bairam Khan and Akbar defeated Hemu, the general of Adil Shah. Following this victory, Akbar moved his capital to Agra.

Territorial Expansion

• Akbar systematically subjugated potential rivals to consolidate control.

• By 1601 CE, the Mughal Empire extended from Afghanistan to Bengal, and from Kashmir down to the Deccan.

Central Administration

• The emperor held ultimate power as the absolute head of both the administrative and military structures.

• Akbar was assisted by a specialized cabinet of senior ministers:

  • Wazir (Prime Minister): The principal advisor to the emperor.

  • Diwan: Head of finance and revenue administration.

  • Mir Bakshi: Paymaster of the military (while the emperor served as commander-in-chief).

  • Qazi: The highest judicial authority beneath the emperor, responsible for administering justice and overseeing education.

  • Sadr-i-sudar: In charge of religious endowments and charitable grants.

Provincial Administration

• The empire was divided into $15$ provinces, known as subas.

• Each suba was governed by a subedar (governor).

• Subas were subdivided into sarkars (districts).

• Sarkars were composed of several parganas.

• Parganas consisted of groupings of individual villages.

• Administrative policies were standardized across all provinces to maintain imperial stability.

Civil and Military Administration: The Mansabdari System

• Akbar introduced the hierarchical mansabdari system to organize imperial administration.

• Every civil or military official (mansabdar) was assigned two numeric ranks: zat and sawar.

  • Zat: Indicated the personal status and rank of the officer. A higher zat rank yielded a larger revenue-assigned land area (jagir).

  • Sawar: Devised during the latter part of Akbar's reign to denote the exact number of cavalrymen a mansabdar was required to maintain for state service.

• Mansabdars drew their personal salaries and upkeep for their cavalry directly from the land revenues of their assigned jagirs.

• To prevent fraud, desertion, and forgery, Akbar implemented the dagh-wa-chehra system:

  • Dagh: The official branding of imperial horses.

  • Chehra: Maintaining descriptive rolls for every soldier in service.

Land Revenue Policy: The Dahsala System

• Akbar adopted and expanded upon Sher Shah Suri's land revenue system under Chief Revenue Officer Raja Todar Mal, who introduced the dahsala system:

  • Land Categorization: Land was classified into four distinct categories based on soil fertility and annual crop rotation frequency.

  • 10-Year Average Assessment: Revenue calculations were based on a $10\text{-year}$ average of agricultural yields and market crop prices.

  • State Share: The state collected one-third ($\frac{1}{3}$) of the calculated average yield.

  • Payment Options: Tax payments were accepted in either cash or kind.

• This system remained stable for over $100\,\text{years}$.

• Government interference in farming operations was minimal, though military force was deployed to collect taxes if payments were delayed.

Rajput Policy

• Akbar recognized that ruling India required winning the trust and collaboration of the Rajputs through diplomacy rather than continuous conflict.

• High-ranking government positions were granted to Rajputs and other Hindu figures, including Raja Todar Mal, Raja Birbal, Raja Bihari Mal, his son Bhagwan Das, and grandson Man Singh.

• Akbar formed diplomatic marriage alliances with Hindu princesses and protected their freedom to practice their religion.

Religious Policy

• Promoted religious tolerance, unity, and equality among all subjects.

• Abolished the jizya, a differential tax levied on non-Muslims.

• In 1575 CE, built the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at his capital, Fatehpur Sikri, inviting leaders of various faiths for philosophical discussions.

• Founded a syncretic belief system named Din-i-Ilahi ("divine faith"), which centered on monotheism and integrated moral principles from major religions.

• Din-i-Ilahi generated opposition among orthodox Muslims and fell out of practice shortly after Akbar's death.

Art, Culture, and Architecture

• Maintained a brilliant court featuring nine outstanding figures, known as the navaratnas ("nine jewels"):

  • Mian Tansen: Classical singer and musician.

  • Abul Fazl: Imperial historian.

  • Birbal: Minister famous for his intellect and humor.

  • Raja Todar Mal: Chief revenue officer.

  • Raja Man Singh: Renowned military general.

• Architecture: Built a new imperial capital at Fatehpur Sikri, incorporating a blend of Indian, Persian, and Central Asian architectural styles.

Jahangir (1605–1627 CE)

Accession and Internal Conflicts

• Prince Salim succeeded Akbar, taking the regal name Jahangir.

• Faced an early rebellion from his eldest son, Prince Khusrau.

• Upon learning that the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, had provided assistance to Prince Khusrau, Jahangir ordered the execution of Guru Arjan Dev.

• This execution initiated a long and bitter historical conflict between the Sikh community and the Mughal authorities.

Coinage and Culture

• Issued detailed gold and silver coins.

• Several coin series featured Jahangir's portrait, and many displayed the image of his wife, Empress Nur Jahan, on the reverse side.

Foreign Trade and European Relations

• European maritime powers, including the Portuguese, British, and Dutch, expanded their commercial footprint across India and the Indian Ocean during his reign.

• 1608 CE: Captain William Hawkins arrived at Surat carrying a letter from King James I of Great Britain to request permission to trade.

• 1614 CE: Sir Thomas Roe arrived as an official ambassador from King James I. Roe obtained liberal commercial concessions and permission to build a trading storehouse ("factory") at Surat, laying the foundation for the English East India Company.

Shah Jahan (1628–1658 CE)

Military Campaigns and Architecture

• Prince Khurram, Jahangir's third son, ascended the throne in 1628 CE under the title Shahabuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan.

• Led military operations against Mewar, Kangra, and the Deccan kingdoms.

• Achieved global renown for monumental architecture.

• Following the death of his wife Mumtaz Mahal in 1631 CE, Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal to house her tomb.

• Prominent foreign travelers visited his court and published accounts of his reign, including French travelers François Bernier and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Italian traveler Niccolao Manucci, and various English envoys.

Aurangzeb (1658–1707 CE) and Imperial Decline

Accession and Extent of Empire

• Aurangzeb, the third son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal, was born in 1618 CE and seized power in 1658 CE.

• Ruled for nearly $50\,\text{years}$, creating one of the largest territorial empires in Indian history.

• Divided his reign into two distinct phases: spent the first half ($1658\text{–}1682\,\text{CE}$) campaigning in the North, and the second half ($1682\text{–}1707\,\text{CE}$) attempting to conquer the Deccan.

Discriminatory Policies

• Religious Policy: Reversed the tradition of religious tolerance established by previous emperors. Reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims, sparking armed revolts in Delhi, Gujarat, and Burhanpur, as well as protests from Marathas, Jats, Satnamis, and Rajputs.

• Rajput Policy: After brief friendly relations, Aurangzeb attempted to directly annex Rajput kingdoms, alienating Rajput leaders and losing valuable soldiers, funds, and military commanders.

• Deccan Policy: Dedicated $26\,\text{years}$ to fighting in the Deccan. Engaged in conflict with the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Although he annexed the kingdoms of Bijapur in 1681 CE and Golconda in 1687 CE, these military campaign victories drained the treasury and depleted troops.

Regional Rebellions and Sikh Conflicts

• Faced persistent armed uprisings by the Assamese and Cooch Behar in the north-east, Afghan tribes between Punjab and Kabul, and Jat and Satnami communities.

• Aurangzeb ordered the execution of the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Teg Bahadur, causing widespread resistance among Sikhs.

• Under the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, Sikh forces fought against Mughal forces.

The Later Mughals (1707–1857 CE)

• Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707 CE, successive rulers (known as the Later Mughals) lacked the administrative and military skill required to maintain the large empire.

• The dynasty remained on the throne in a weakened state until 1857 CE, when the British Empire established full political domination over India.

Questions & Discussion

• Jahangir's Letter to King James I (1617 CE Excerpt):

  • Excerpt: Jahangir acknowledged receiving gifts and letters through ambassador Sir Thomas Roe ("who well deserves to be your trusted servant"). Jahangir issued general imperial commands to all governors and captains across his ports and kingdoms to treat English merchants as subjects of his ally, granting them full freedom to buy, sell, and transport goods without fear of attack from Portugal or other powers.

  • Tone of Response: Warm, open, and frank.

  • European Powers Present: Portuguese, British, and Dutch.

  • Long-Term Impact: The liberal trading concessions allowed the English East India Company to build commercial roots that eventually enabled full territorial conquest of India by 1857 CE.

Key Terminology

• Artillery: The branch of an army that uses heavy guns and cannons.

• Cavalry: Combat troops trained to fight on horseback.

• Muskets: Early light firearms used by foot soldiers.