INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

• sociology is the scientific study of people in grou[s
• society - a large social grouping that shares the same geographic territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations
• sociological study examines certain behavioral patterns, skills, values and beliefs expected by a society
• sociology explores how the categories we belong to shape our experience of the world
• sociology also tries to understand how society and these different categories can influence our thoughts, feelings and actions
• some topics to research in sociology include
  • gender differences, teen subcultures
  • family, birth order, immigrant families
  • education, religion, technology
  • society and stress
• there are a variety of agents of socialization
  • family, peer group, school
  • workplace, culture, religion
  • the mass media
• primary socialization
  • the process of learning how to function in society at the most basic level
  • the process by which we learn to;
  • use language
  • learn to eat
  • practice hygiene
  • deal with emotions
  • how to behave according to gender
• secondary socialization
  • the process of learning how to function in group situations
  • learning how to behave in school, church, etc.
  • we learn how to follow the behaviors society expects of us while acting in group situations
• anticipatory socialization
  • the process of learning how to think ahead and to plan appropriate behavior in new situations
• resocialization
  • the process in which society deliberately replaces negative aspects of a person’s behavior with new learning
• social groups
  • two or more people with four characteristics
  • they interact regularly and influence each other
  • believe they have something in common (shared identity)
  • have formal and informal social structure with leaders and followers
  • have common values, behaviors and goals
• a crowd
  • in the same place at the same time
  • do not necessarily have anything in common
  • do not interact regularly with one another
  • have no influence over each other
  • people are unaware of each other in any personal sense
• primary social group
  • few members & interact often
  • deep concern for others - shared culture
  • close relationships - the relationship becomes the goal
  • long term bonds
  • interested in the whole individual personality of each group member
  • these groups tend to have a direct effect on member’s personal identities
• problems within the primary bubble
  • groups may demand members share common values and style
  • can result in members committing acts to be accepted by the group
  • expectations of different social groups may conflict with each other
  • it is difficult to maintain a comfortable social dynamic
• secondary social group
  • larger & interact less
  • established to perform a function/purpose
  • break apart easily - more impersonal/formal than primary
  • members often have short-term or temporary relationships
  • members are judges on what they can do for the group instead of who they are as a person
  • group members have less influence on each other
• positive aspects of secondary social groups
  • due to their less personal nature, members are less likely to conform, allowing personal expression
  • conflicts between secondary groups also tend to be less frequent as their expectations tend to apply only to specific situations
• network
  • a very loose group of individuals who have little interaction with each other
  • can be a large number of people who live long distance from each other
  • can be used when people are looking for a job
  • young, well educated, urban people usually have the largest networks
• 3 ways groups influence behavior; roles, norms, sanctions
• roles - we learn through what is expected of us
• norms - rules within a group that indicate how members should behave
  • mores - moral views, never to be broken
  • folkways - everyday habits, manners, personal appearance
• sanctions - rules within a group that encourage or discourage behavior
  • punishments or rewards to ensure rules are followed
  • informal - smile, frown, praise, criticism
  • formal - official public rewards, scholarship punishment, expulsion, driving ticket
• asch paradigm
  • when an individual’s own opinions and actions are influenced by the majority of the group (conforms to the group)
  • someone modifies his/her behavior based on the actions of the group
• cliques - informal and restrictive group formed by people who share common interests, views purposes, patterns of behavior or ethnicity (exclusive membership)
• main roles - hierarchy
  • queen bee = power, friendship, increased self esteem
  • followers = memberships, increased social life, closer friendships
  • outcasts = bullying, depression, stress, low self esteem
• effects - bullying, insults, hazing (psychologically traumatizing)
• hazing
  • a ritualistic/initiation test, which may include harassment, abuse, or humiliation to perform meaningless tasks
  • newcomer is hazed, once accepted by the group, the victim becomes a bystander, and watches the hazing of others
• high school subculture
  • main features: style, fashion, music, material possessions
  • a means of gaining an identity for many trying to figure themselves out
  • pros of cliques:
  • support
  • sense of belonging
  • protection from other groups
  • boosts self esteem
  • creates a sense of identity
  • cons of cliques:
  • can take away individuality
  • can become hostile to outsiders
  • can alter your behavior
  • members can be dropped
• crowds & mass behavior
  • collective behavior
  • the ways people act in crowds, social movements, cultures or society
  • 3 characteristics:
    • spontaneous & unpredictable
    • localized
    • irrational/dangerous
  • sociologists have difficulty studying collective behavior because reactions from a crowd are not easy to predict
  • types of crowds
  • casual crowd
    • very loose collection of people who react very little to each other
    • may go out of way not to interact
    • examples; people in a store, at a bus stop, on the street
  • conventional crowd
    • people gathered for a specific purpose
    • conforms to norms appropriate for situation
    • examples; school assembly, wedding, movie, religious site
  • expressive crowd
    • people gathered at an event with emotional appeal
    • people join because they are excited about what might happen
    • display emotions (clap, cheer, boo, etc.)
    • examples; political rally, baseball game, concert
  • acting crowd
    • fuelled by a single purpose/goal
    • think in simple terms (clearly right or wrong)
    • reason ineffective in directing emotion
    • can become dangerous
    • examples; political rally, protest
  • mob
    • when an active crowd turns violent
    • highly emotional crowd that pursues a destructive/violent goal
  • riot
    • frenzied crowd without a goal
    • often includes random violence, looting, and/or vandalism
  • mass behavior
  • group behavior that involves people who are dispersed
  • relies on personal communication through mass media and the internet
  • panic
    • collective behavior that causes people to react to a threat in an emotional irrational or self destructive way
  • mass hysteria
    • causes people to respond in an irrational and frantic way
    • people have little to no contact with each other
    • caused by actual (or imagined) event/idea
  • social movements
  • the collective behavior of people who promote or resist changes to society
  • tend to last longer and be more organized than other kinds of collective behavior
  • examples: political movements (equal rights, environmental concerns)
  • sociologists ask 2 main questions when investigating social movements
    • who will be affected by the social movement
    • how much change is the movement seeking
  • alternative social movements - seek an alternative or narrow change in a small portion of the population
  • reformative social movements - seeks a limited change to all of society, want to reform society by pointing it in a new direction
  • revolutionary social movements - try to change the basic structure of society, the change would impact every member of society
  • theory of social movements
  • social scientists have developed 4 theories to explain how and why social movements arise
  • deprivation theory - started by people who feel deprived in some way
  • mass society theory - appeal to people who feel socially isolated and insignificant and give these people a sense of belonging power and importance
  • social concern theory - occur when a social institution or benefit is threatened by change
  • structural strain theory - movements aim to bring fundamental and revolutionary change to society that is plagued with significant problems and people feel deprived as a result
• bystander effect
  • the unwillingness of members of a crowd to get involved when help is needed
  • altruistic (selfless, helpful) behavior is strongly influenced by the social situation
  • particularly connected to the number of bystanders present
  • the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely someone is to help
  • factors that influence helping:
  • situational ambiguity
    • if it is unclear if something is an emergency, people are less likely to offer help
    • less likely to help in unfamiliar environments
    • examples: someone falls of bike and gets up holding arm
    • when people are in strange cities rather than in their hometowns
  • perceived cost
    • more likely to help if cost to ourselves declines
    • example: you are more likely to lend your class notes to someone you believe will return them (than to a person who doesn’t appear to be trustworthy)
  • diffusion of responsibility
    • less people present, means more people are likely to help
    • more people = less sense of individual responsibility
    • few people = harder to rationalize that someone else will help
    • example: you suddenly felt faint and are about to pass out on the street
    • you would be more likely to receive help if there are only a few passers-by present than if the street is crowded with pedestrians
  • similarity
    • people are more willing to help others who they perceive to be similar to themselves
    • common background, beliefs, appearance
    • examples: people are more likely to help others who dress like them those in different attire
    • people tend to be more willing to help their kin than to help non--kin
  • mood - people are generally more willing to help others when they are in a good mood
  • gender - women tend to receive more help and assistance than men
  • attributions of the cause of need
    • people are much more likely to help others they judge to be innocent victims than those they believe have brought their problems on themselves
    • example: they may fail to lend assistance to homeless people and drug addicts whom they feel “deserve what they get”
  • social norms
    • social norms define behaviors that are expected of people in social situations
    • example: people are more likely to make a charitable donation when they are asked by a co-worker in full view of others than when they receive an appeal in the mail in the privacy of their own home
• socialization
  • sociology - how groups and societies shape who you are; the relationships that exist between people, and the social structures they develop
  • socius (latin) “companion”, -logy (greek) “the study of”
  • two social sciences that focus on human behavior in a social context;
  • sociology
    • scientific study of people in groups
    • goal is to understand & explain patterns of social behavior
  • social psychology
    • the study of individuals within their social & cultural setting
    • examines how society influences human mental processes, behaviors, and personality
  • branches of sociology
  • macrosociology
    • structural functionalism
    • conflict theory
    • feminist sociology
  • microsociology
    • symbolic interactionism
  • structural functionalism
  • view that different parts of society serve a purpose for the society as a whole
  • ex. family, education, media, religion
  • believe social problems are temporary & functions of social groups will improve over time
  • emile durkheim
  • early french sociologist considered to be one of the founders of modern sociology
  • believed individuals identify with society in larger context (as a whole)
  • people are the product of their social environment
  • social order maintained through similarities in society (social cohesion)
  • acknowledged deviance to norms to push society forward
  • talcott parsons
  • american sociologist
  • individuals and groups defined by the purpose they serve in society
  • interconnected institutions that fulfill the 4 functional prerequisites of society
  • adaptation: economy providing material needs (i.e. employment, control prices and supply of resources
  • goal attainment: resources organized so that the needs of the majority are met
  • integration: population understand norms and values of society
  • latency: pattern maintenance (prepare for future role in society, promotes meritocracy and tension management)
  • criticisms of the functionalist approach
  • ignores the conflicts in societies
  • norms and values are explained as serving needs of society
  • marxists and feminists would criticize functionalists on these grounds
  • conflict theory
  • view that power, not function, holds society together
  • society = groups of people acting in competition
  • this conflict may bring about change, progress or improvement
  • people are motivated by external social & economic conditions
  • inequalities of social classes or genders
  • karl marx
  • leading conflict sociologist of 19th century
  • also considered the father of communism
  • studied class conflicts (capitalism) throughout history
  • bourgeois and the proletariat
  • exploitation, alienation, revolution
  • feminist sociology
  • focus on women & gender inequality in society
  • emphasis on better understanding of social roles of men & women in different cultures
  • patriarchy: male dominance of employment, finances, and bodies
  • strives to raise awareness & change - socially & politically
  • ex. discrimination, domestic violence, date rape, etc.
  • symbolic interactionism
  • focus on the beliefs and actions of individuals and their meaning to the individuals
  • human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols
  • our relationships are developed by attempting to interpret these symbols
  • meaning arises through interaction and is modified by thought
  • what is socialization
  • the type of learning that individuals receive from social contact which influences thinking & action
  • how much of an individual’s development & behavior is the result of heredity (nature) or socialization & environment (nurture)?
  • minnesota twin study
  • compared sets of identical twins separated at birth
  • similarities beyond physical traits
  • suggest problems such as antisocial leanings, depression & alcoholism might involve genes
  • differences in attitudes & values support importance of nurture
  • isolated children
  • isolates - children that have been physically, socially & emotionally deprived
  • illustrates that severe developmental problems occur when no socialization occurs
  • anna & genie show adequate socialization at a young age is essential for full physical, emotional, psychological & social development
• agents of socialization
  • people and institutions that shape an individual’s social development
  • family, school, peer groups, workplace, media, religion
  • family influence
  • basic needs - nutrition, language, communication, physical care, etc.
  • rules of behavior - teaches right or wrong, proper and improper, appropriate and inappropriate
  • personality development - gender roles, personal qualities
  • school influence
  • manifest function - the visible purpose of school, students learn a curriculum (standard knowledge and skills)
  • latent function - the hidden purpose of school, students learn a certain set of beliefs and attitudes (cooperation, punctuality, self-reliance, competitiveness)
  • peer group influence
  • during adolescence, peer groups chrome the major agent of socialization
  • learn skills such as communication, collaboration, compromise
  • opportunity to talk about things discouraged by family (i.e. smoking, sexual attitudes, etc.)
  • peer pressure, acceptance vs marginalization
  • peer groups highly susceptible to media influence
  • media influence
  • exposed from an early age
  • movies, radio, television, internet, social media, apps, impact our:
    • expectations from life
    • our values
    • how we see ourselves
    • unrealistic expectations
  • regular socialization
    • actual interaction with real people
    • two way verbal or physical exchange
    • person being socialized has an active role
    • person being socialized can affect the outcome
  • media socialization
    • one-sided process
    • person being socialized cannot interact
    • agent sends a message that the viewer receives
  • religious influence
  • those that belong to, or were largely exposed to, some type of religion are influenced by it
  • religion communicates guidelines for life on earth
  • how to behave and treat others and the afterlife
  • most religions take a particular standpoint on key issues within our society
  • workplace
  • messages from school are reinforced
  • specialized language
  • procedures
  • rules & codes
  • commit to success of employer
  • dealing with colleagues, customers & competitors
  • social behavior: the interaction among members of the same group responding to external or internal stimuli
  • external stimuli: guided by what others in the same environment are doing
  • internal stimuli: learned from your family, or media
  • the effect of other people on a person’s thought and actions influences behavior
  • direct influence: ex. joining friends at a sushi restaurant when you really what a burger
  • indirect influence: ex. basing your decision to date someone on the reaction you think you’ll get from family or friends
  • socialization: process by which the individual learns the behavioral patterns, skills and values of their social world
  • socialization process
  • basic needs - how to take physical care of oneself
  • socially acceptable goals - such as employment, marriage, having a family
  • roles & behavior - such as how to act in specific conditions (funeral, parties)
  • categories of socialization
  • primary - basic skills needed to survive in society
  • secondary - process of learning how to behave in group situations
  • anticipatory - how to plan the way to behave in new situations
  • resocialization - process where negative behavior is transformed into acceptable behavior
• culture, gender roles, and gender identity
  • sex - genetically defined, visibly identifiable
  • gender - culturally defined, culturally constructed
  • gender roles
  • a set of societal norms
  • dictates what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person
  • is based on their actual or perceived sex
  • gender identity
  • one's personal experience of one’s own gender
  • is generally described as one’s private sense of being a man, woman or other
  • consists primarily of the acceptance of membership into a category of male or female
  • in what ways are genders constructed
  • clothing, symbols
  • classifications of male and female characteristics/roles
  • relative values of genders
  • how they are valued when compared with each other
  • what behaviors are expected or acceptable
  • cultural influences
  • art & entertainment - popularizes body image
  • environment - availability of resources influences who does what in a society
  • values/religions/beliefs - provides a set of guidelines on what is acceptable within a culture for both roles and expression of identity
  • education/institutions - determines what people learn, which then informs who they “should be”
  • laws/customs - determine what people should or should not do, some roles and expressions of identity are controlled by law
  • divisions of labor/power - expression of who can do what and who has more value in a society, an imbalance leads to a master-servant like scenario whereas a balance leads to an equilateral scenario
• social attitudes
  • have a significant influence on the development of social identity in the individual
  • our opinions may align with society’s views or stand in direct opposition to them
  • a person may be forced to act as others do in society even through he or she may disagree
  • for many social issues, the individual must learn to integrate both views
  • have to resolve internal conflict and shape his or her response and identity accordingly
  • not all social attitudes are easy to accommodate
• sexual orientation
  • determined by who you’re romantically, physically, emotionally, and sexually attracted to
  • figuring out your sexual orientation can be confusing
  • for some people, an awareness of their own sexual orientation is clear from the beginning
  • for other people, it takes time for them to develop a clear enough understanding
  • sexual identity: how an individual presents to the world (ex. gay, lesbian, straight)
  • gender identity: someone’s sense of being male or female
  • gender role: characteristics attached to culturally defined notions of masculinity or femininity
  • homosexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the same sex
  • heterosexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the opposite sex, referred to as straight
  • gay: a term for homosexual, can refer to both males and females but is mostly used to refer to men
  • lesbian: a female homosexual
  • bisexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the opposite and same sex
  • transgender: someone whose gender identity is different from their biological sex
  • transvestite/drag queen: someone who dresses in clothes of the opposite gender and for whom that dressing is sexually satisfying, many transvestites are heterosexual men
  • pansexual: someone who has physical and emotional attraction toward persons of all gender identities and biological sexes
  • intersex: a person whose sexual anatomy, genitalia or chromosomes that do not fit the typical definition of male or female, may identify as male, female or neither
  • heterosexism: the assumption that heterosexuality is the social and cultural norm as well as the prejudiced belief that heterosexual people are socially and culturally superior to all other sexual orientations
  • heterosexual privilege: is an advantage automatically given to heterosexual persons simply because they are heterosexual
  • you don’t have to come out about your sexual identity
  • you don’t have to justify your identity or legitimacy of your orientation
  • your right to get married is never questioned
  • you don’t have to fear violence because of your orientation
  • you don’t have to worry about losing your family, friends or financial support
  • you have ample and fairly accurate media representation
  • you can talk about your partner and your love life openly
  • you have the opportunity to learn about your privilege than experiencing oppression firsthand
  • heteronormativity: cultural bias in favor of opposite-sex/gender relationships over same-sex relationships
  • heteronormative bias
  • under representation of same-sex couples in advertising and entertainment and media
  • religious biases to marry same-sex couples
  • heterosexual persons freely discussing their intimate relationships
  • heterosexism is a systemic bias that have been encoded into major social and cultural institutions
  • it causes undue stress which can affect one's physical, emotional, social, personal choices, and well being
  • social institutions (schools, hospitals etc.) can act as a platform for heterosexist attitudes and beliefs to thrive
  • schools may treat the lives of non-heterosexuals as sensitive topics
  • hospitals may limit patient visit to immediate family and exclude same-sex partner
  • heterosexism is systemic oppression which leads to, intersects with and fuels homophobia
  • heterosexism and social attitudes lead to;
  • homophobia: a fear and extreme dislike of gays, lesbians and bisexuals, often exhibited by prejudice, discrimination, harrasment and acts of violence
  • internalized homophobia: the inner feelings of fear or shame about their sexuality, often caused by negative social attitudes and/or personal prejudice
  • gay bashing: the act of attacking someone, physically, verbally, or in written form because of their sexual orientation or their perceived sexual orientation
  • social acceptance is problematic for the LGBTQ+ community
  • this is due to the social stigma attached to a sexual orientation other than straight
  • most LGBTQ+ individuals struggle with accepting themselves
  • they fear whether they will be accepted as a member of society
  • LGBTQ+ individuals experience bullying harassment and discrimination on a daily basis
  • many question their own identity and self throughout their lifetime
  • some choose to say “closeted” while others decide to “come out”
  • but even those who “come out” struggle with confidence and self-esteem
  • benefits of coming out
  • living an open and whole life
  • developing close, more genuine relationships
  • gaining self-esteem for being known and loved for who you really are
  • reducing the stress of hiding our identity
  • connecting with others in the LGBTQ+ community
  • becoming part of a strong and vibrant community
  • becoming a positive role model for others
  • risks of coming out
  • not everyone will be accepting
  • family, friends, classmates, co-workers may be shocked, confused or hostile
  • some relationships may permanently change
  • may experience harassment or discrimination
  • personal safety may be put at risk
  • some young people may be thrown out of their home, or lose financial support
• discussions around racism
  • racism: the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics
  • stereotype: is a fixed and oversimplified idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside
  • systemic discrimination: patterns of behavior, policies or practices that are part of the structures of on organization which create or perpetuate disadvantage for racialized person
  • prejudice: an unfavorable opinion or feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason
• crime & deviance
  • sociologist William Graham Summer defined deviance
  • deviance: a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law
  • folkways: norms based on everyday cultural customs concerning practical matters like how to hold a fork, what type of clothes are appropriate for different situations, or how to greet someone politely
  • mores: more serious moral injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society
  • codified laws: norms specified in explicit codes and enforced by government bodies
  • crime vs deviance
  • crime is an act of deviance that breaks not only a norm, but a law
  • deviance can be as minor as picking one’s nose in public or as major as committing murder
  • acts of deviance are defined by society and its important to consider;
  • social context
  • what the existing rules are
  • how did the rules come to be establish
  • rules and norms vary across culture and time
  • our understanding of deviance also changes
  • moral entrepreneurs: individuals or groups who, in the service of their own interests, publicize and problematize “wrongdoing” and have the power to create and enforce rules to penalize wrong doing
  • one tactic used by moral entrepreneurs is to create a moral panic about activities they deem deviant
  • moral panic: occurs when media-fuelled public fear and overreaction lead authorities to label and repress deviants
  • through social interaction, individuals are labeled deviant or come to recognize themselves as deviant
  • social control: an organized action intended to change people’s behavior
  • all societies practice social control, the regulation and enforcement of norms
  • the underlying goal is to maintain social order
  • social order: an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
  • rules are enforced by positive and negative sanctions
  • positive sanctions - rewards for conforming to norms
  • negative sanctions - punishments for violating norms
  • informal vs formal sanctions
  • informal emerges in face-to-face interactions (smiles, pat on the back)
  • formal are ways to officially recognize and enforce norm violations (arrests)
  • functionalist perspective
  • concerned with how the different elements of society contribute to the whole
  • view deviance as a key component of a functioning society
  • social disorganization theory, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory are three functionalist perspectives on deviance in society
  • durkheim believed deviance functions by challenging present views allowing society to progress
  • merton expanded with the Strain Theory
  • strain theory: asserts that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates
    • from birth, we are encouraged to achieve the goal of financial success
    • individuals adapt when according to their goals and means of achieving it
  • social disorganization theory: asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
  • feminist perspective
  • focuses on the way gender inequality influences the opportunities to commit crime and the definition, detection, and prosecution of crime
  • many perspectives on spousal abuse etc.
  • women regarded as criminally deviant are often seen as being doubly deviant
  • they have broken the laws but they have also broken gender norms about appropriate female behavior
  • men’s criminal behavior is seen as consistent with their aggressive, self-assertive character
  • considered to be a double standard
  • labeling theory - a symbolic interactionist approach
  • symbolic interactionism: a theoretical approach used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional
  • labeling theory: the process of classifying kinds of people is a social process that Hacking calls “making up people” and Howard Becker calls “labeling”
  • the social process of labeling some kinds of persons or activities as abnormal or deviant limits the type of social responses available
  • who gets labeled by whom and the way social labels are applied have powerful social repercussions
  • individuals who are labeled, live up to the labels attributed to them
• personality: nature vs. nurture
  • personality: a usual way of thinking, feeling & acting that is unique to an individual
  • socialization contributes to personality
  • nature/nurture debate
  • newborns not necessarily born with personalities already formed
  • way babies are treated & personalities of people around them shape their development
  • cultural attitudes
  • encourages some traits & discourages others
  • ex. gender roles & traits in western society
  • birth order
  • place within family influences development of certain characteristics
  • is based on socialization
  • child development
  • psychological theories about development of personality & sense of self
  • are tied to development as a whole
  • freud & personality development
  • main force is the unconscious mind
  • through socialization the ego & superego develop to control the id
  • interaction with others leads to development of a balanced personality
  • j.piaget & cognitive development
  • how children develop the ability to learn
  • influenced by social & psychological factors
  • introduced idea that personality develops over time
  • children can shape their own social world
  • four stages of development
  • piaget’s four stages of development
  • sensorimotor
    • 0-2 years
    • look, touch, taste, listen
    • know the world through direct experience
  • pre-operational
    • 2-7 years
    • experience world mentally through communication
    • only see things from their point of view
  • concrete operational
    • 7-12 years
    • complex operations (math) when physical objects are present
    • think in terms of cause & effect
    • can see things from point of view of others
  • formal operational
    • develops in adolescence
    • think abstractly, use logic
    • can imagine alternatives to reality
  • c.h.cooley & the looking glass self
  • sense of self or identity derived from socialization with others
  • "looking-glass" self
    • reactions of others are mirrors that show us who we are
  • look to others to see reflection of our psychological selves & develop set of beliefs about ourselves
  • starts with parents then expands to build & organize our self-concept
  • e.erikson & lifelong development
  • development of self doesn't end in childhood or adolescence
  • it is a lifelong process
  • psychosocial stages: resolving the challenges at each stage leads to healthy personality development
  • infancy & childhood (0-11yrs): focus on developing emotionally, socially, intellectually & physically
  • adolescence (11-18yrs): focus on developing concept of personal identity
  • early adulthood (18-25yrs): learn to form close, lasting relationships & focus on career
  • middle adulthood (25-50yrs): develop sense of accomplishment
  • late adulthood (50+yrs): elders may be revered & respected
  • a.maslow & self-actualized people
  • identified personality traits of "self-actualized" people
  • people who successfully meet their needs and fulfill their potential
    • see things as they are, not as they wish them to be
    • accept themselves
    • think & behave independently
    • have a task or mission in life
    • stick with what they think is right
    • react with emotion to important life experiences
    • have concern for others
    • experience deep emotional ties to others
    • accept differences among people
    • live according to ethical/moral standards
    • have a sense of humor that is not unkind
    • see some of the faults or limitations of own culture

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