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INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

  • sociology is the scientific study of people in grou[s
  • society - a large social grouping that shares the same geographic territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations
  • sociological study examines certain behavioral patterns, skills, values and beliefs expected by a society
  • sociology explores how the categories we belong to shape our experience of the world
  • sociology also tries to understand how society and these different categories can influence our thoughts, feelings and actions
  • some topics to research in sociology include
    • gender differences, teen subcultures
    • family, birth order, immigrant families
    • education, religion, technology
    • society and stress
  • there are a variety of agents of socialization
    • family, peer group, school
    • workplace, culture, religion
    • the mass media
  • primary socialization
    • the process of learning how to function in society at the most basic level
    • the process by which we learn to;
    • use language
    • learn to eat
    • practice hygiene
    • deal with emotions
    • how to behave according to gender
  • secondary socialization
    • the process of learning how to function in group situations
    • learning how to behave in school, church, etc.
    • we learn how to follow the behaviors society expects of us while acting in group situations
  • anticipatory socialization
    • the process of learning how to think ahead and to plan appropriate behavior in new situations
  • resocialization
    • the process in which society deliberately replaces negative aspects of a person’s behavior with new learning
  • social groups
    • two or more people with four characteristics
    • they interact regularly and influence each other
    • believe they have something in common (shared identity)
    • have formal and informal social structure with leaders and followers
    • have common values, behaviors and goals
  • a crowd
    • in the same place at the same time
    • do not necessarily have anything in common
    • do not interact regularly with one another
    • have no influence over each other
    • people are unaware of each other in any personal sense
  • primary social group
    • few members & interact often
    • deep concern for others - shared culture
    • close relationships - the relationship becomes the goal
    • long term bonds
    • interested in the whole individual personality of each group member
    • these groups tend to have a direct effect on member’s personal identities
  • problems within the primary bubble
    • groups may demand members share common values and style
    • can result in members committing acts to be accepted by the group
    • expectations of different social groups may conflict with each other
    • it is difficult to maintain a comfortable social dynamic
  • secondary social group
    • larger & interact less
    • established to perform a function/purpose
    • break apart easily - more impersonal/formal than primary
    • members often have short-term or temporary relationships
    • members are judges on what they can do for the group instead of who they are as a person
    • group members have less influence on each other
  • positive aspects of secondary social groups
    • due to their less personal nature, members are less likely to conform, allowing personal expression
    • conflicts between secondary groups also tend to be less frequent as their expectations tend to apply only to specific situations
  • network
    • a very loose group of individuals who have little interaction with each other
    • can be a large number of people who live long distance from each other
    • can be used when people are looking for a job
    • young, well educated, urban people usually have the largest networks
  • 3 ways groups influence behavior; roles, norms, sanctions
  • roles - we learn through what is expected of us
  • norms - rules within a group that indicate how members should behave
    • mores - moral views, never to be broken
    • folkways - everyday habits, manners, personal appearance
  • sanctions - rules within a group that encourage or discourage behavior
    • punishments or rewards to ensure rules are followed
    • informal - smile, frown, praise, criticism
    • formal - official public rewards, scholarship punishment, expulsion, driving ticket
  • asch paradigm
    • when an individual’s own opinions and actions are influenced by the majority of the group (conforms to the group)
    • someone modifies his/her behavior based on the actions of the group
  • cliques - informal and restrictive group formed by people who share common interests, views purposes, patterns of behavior or ethnicity (exclusive membership)
  • main roles - hierarchy
    • queen bee = power, friendship, increased self esteem
    • followers = memberships, increased social life, closer friendships
    • outcasts = bullying, depression, stress, low self esteem
  • effects - bullying, insults, hazing (psychologically traumatizing)
  • hazing
    • a ritualistic/initiation test, which may include harassment, abuse, or humiliation to perform meaningless tasks
    • newcomer is hazed, once accepted by the group, the victim becomes a bystander, and watches the hazing of others
  • high school subculture
    • main features: style, fashion, music, material possessions
    • a means of gaining an identity for many trying to figure themselves out
    • pros of cliques:
    • support
    • sense of belonging
    • protection from other groups
    • boosts self esteem
    • creates a sense of identity
    • cons of cliques:
    • can take away individuality
    • can become hostile to outsiders
    • can alter your behavior
    • members can be dropped
  • crowds & mass behavior
    • collective behavior
    • the ways people act in crowds, social movements, cultures or society
    • 3 characteristics:
      • spontaneous & unpredictable
      • localized
      • irrational/dangerous
    • sociologists have difficulty studying collective behavior because reactions from a crowd are not easy to predict
    • types of crowds
    • casual crowd
      • very loose collection of people who react very little to each other
      • may go out of way not to interact
      • examples; people in a store, at a bus stop, on the street
    • conventional crowd
      • people gathered for a specific purpose
      • conforms to norms appropriate for situation
      • examples; school assembly, wedding, movie, religious site
    • expressive crowd
      • people gathered at an event with emotional appeal
      • people join because they are excited about what might happen
      • display emotions (clap, cheer, boo, etc.)
      • examples; political rally, baseball game, concert
    • acting crowd
      • fuelled by a single purpose/goal
      • think in simple terms (clearly right or wrong)
      • reason ineffective in directing emotion
      • can become dangerous
      • examples; political rally, protest
    • mob
      • when an active crowd turns violent
      • highly emotional crowd that pursues a destructive/violent goal
    • riot
      • frenzied crowd without a goal
      • often includes random violence, looting, and/or vandalism
    • mass behavior
    • group behavior that involves people who are dispersed
    • relies on personal communication through mass media and the internet
    • panic
      • collective behavior that causes people to react to a threat in an emotional irrational or self destructive way
    • mass hysteria
      • causes people to respond in an irrational and frantic way
      • people have little to no contact with each other
      • caused by actual (or imagined) event/idea
    • social movements
    • the collective behavior of people who promote or resist changes to society
    • tend to last longer and be more organized than other kinds of collective behavior
    • examples: political movements (equal rights, environmental concerns)
    • sociologists ask 2 main questions when investigating social movements
      • who will be affected by the social movement
      • how much change is the movement seeking
    • alternative social movements - seek an alternative or narrow change in a small portion of the population
    • reformative social movements - seeks a limited change to all of society, want to reform society by pointing it in a new direction
    • revolutionary social movements - try to change the basic structure of society, the change would impact every member of society
    • theory of social movements
    • social scientists have developed 4 theories to explain how and why social movements arise
    • deprivation theory - started by people who feel deprived in some way
    • mass society theory - appeal to people who feel socially isolated and insignificant and give these people a sense of belonging power and importance
    • social concern theory - occur when a social institution or benefit is threatened by change
    • structural strain theory - movements aim to bring fundamental and revolutionary change to society that is plagued with significant problems and people feel deprived as a result
  • bystander effect
    • the unwillingness of members of a crowd to get involved when help is needed
    • altruistic (selfless, helpful) behavior is strongly influenced by the social situation
    • particularly connected to the number of bystanders present
    • the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely someone is to help
    • factors that influence helping:
    • situational ambiguity
      • if it is unclear if something is an emergency, people are less likely to offer help
      • less likely to help in unfamiliar environments
      • examples: someone falls of bike and gets up holding arm
      • when people are in strange cities rather than in their hometowns
    • perceived cost
      • more likely to help if cost to ourselves declines
      • example: you are more likely to lend your class notes to someone you believe will return them (than to a person who doesn’t appear to be trustworthy)
    • diffusion of responsibility
      • less people present, means more people are likely to help
      • more people = less sense of individual responsibility
      • few people = harder to rationalize that someone else will help
      • example: you suddenly felt faint and are about to pass out on the street
      • you would be more likely to receive help if there are only a few passers-by present than if the street is crowded with pedestrians
    • similarity
      • people are more willing to help others who they perceive to be similar to themselves
      • common background, beliefs, appearance
      • examples: people are more likely to help others who dress like them those in different attire
      • people tend to be more willing to help their kin than to help non--kin
    • mood - people are generally more willing to help others when they are in a good mood
    • gender - women tend to receive more help and assistance than men
    • attributions of the cause of need
      • people are much more likely to help others they judge to be innocent victims than those they believe have brought their problems on themselves
      • example: they may fail to lend assistance to homeless people and drug addicts whom they feel “deserve what they get”
    • social norms
      • social norms define behaviors that are expected of people in social situations
      • example: people are more likely to make a charitable donation when they are asked by a co-worker in full view of others than when they receive an appeal in the mail in the privacy of their own home
  • socialization
    • sociology - how groups and societies shape who you are; the relationships that exist between people, and the social structures they develop
    • socius (latin) “companion”, -logy (greek) “the study of”
    • two social sciences that focus on human behavior in a social context;
    • sociology
      • scientific study of people in groups
      • goal is to understand & explain patterns of social behavior
    • social psychology
      • the study of individuals within their social & cultural setting
      • examines how society influences human mental processes, behaviors, and personality
    • branches of sociology
    • macrosociology
      • structural functionalism
      • conflict theory
      • feminist sociology
    • microsociology
      • symbolic interactionism
    • structural functionalism
    • view that different parts of society serve a purpose for the society as a whole
    • ex. family, education, media, religion
    • believe social problems are temporary & functions of social groups will improve over time
    • emile durkheim
    • early french sociologist considered to be one of the founders of modern sociology
    • believed individuals identify with society in larger context (as a whole)
    • people are the product of their social environment
    • social order maintained through similarities in society (social cohesion)
    • acknowledged deviance to norms to push society forward
    • talcott parsons
    • american sociologist
    • individuals and groups defined by the purpose they serve in society
    • interconnected institutions that fulfill the 4 functional prerequisites of society
    • adaptation: economy providing material needs (i.e. employment, control prices and supply of resources
    • goal attainment: resources organized so that the needs of the majority are met
    • integration: population understand norms and values of society
    • latency: pattern maintenance (prepare for future role in society, promotes meritocracy and tension management)
    • criticisms of the functionalist approach
    • ignores the conflicts in societies
    • norms and values are explained as serving needs of society
    • marxists and feminists would criticize functionalists on these grounds
    • conflict theory
    • view that power, not function, holds society together
    • society = groups of people acting in competition
    • this conflict may bring about change, progress or improvement
    • people are motivated by external social & economic conditions
    • inequalities of social classes or genders
    • karl marx
    • leading conflict sociologist of 19th century
    • also considered the father of communism
    • studied class conflicts (capitalism) throughout history
    • bourgeois and the proletariat
    • exploitation, alienation, revolution
    • feminist sociology
    • focus on women & gender inequality in society
    • emphasis on better understanding of social roles of men & women in different cultures
    • patriarchy: male dominance of employment, finances, and bodies
    • strives to raise awareness & change - socially & politically
    • ex. discrimination, domestic violence, date rape, etc.
    • symbolic interactionism
    • focus on the beliefs and actions of individuals and their meaning to the individuals
    • human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols
    • our relationships are developed by attempting to interpret these symbols
    • meaning arises through interaction and is modified by thought
    • what is socialization
    • the type of learning that individuals receive from social contact which influences thinking & action
    • how much of an individual’s development & behavior is the result of heredity (nature) or socialization & environment (nurture)?
    • minnesota twin study
    • compared sets of identical twins separated at birth
    • similarities beyond physical traits
    • suggest problems such as antisocial leanings, depression & alcoholism might involve genes
    • differences in attitudes & values support importance of nurture
    • isolated children
    • isolates - children that have been physically, socially & emotionally deprived
    • illustrates that severe developmental problems occur when no socialization occurs
    • anna & genie show adequate socialization at a young age is essential for full physical, emotional, psychological & social development
  • agents of socialization
    • people and institutions that shape an individual’s social development
    • family, school, peer groups, workplace, media, religion
    • family influence
    • basic needs - nutrition, language, communication, physical care, etc.
    • rules of behavior - teaches right or wrong, proper and improper, appropriate and inappropriate
    • personality development - gender roles, personal qualities
    • school influence
    • manifest function - the visible purpose of school, students learn a curriculum (standard knowledge and skills)
    • latent function - the hidden purpose of school, students learn a certain set of beliefs and attitudes (cooperation, punctuality, self-reliance, competitiveness)
    • peer group influence
    • during adolescence, peer groups chrome the major agent of socialization
    • learn skills such as communication, collaboration, compromise
    • opportunity to talk about things discouraged by family (i.e. smoking, sexual attitudes, etc.)
    • peer pressure, acceptance vs marginalization
    • peer groups highly susceptible to media influence
    • media influence
    • exposed from an early age
    • movies, radio, television, internet, social media, apps, impact our:
      • expectations from life
      • our values
      • how we see ourselves
      • unrealistic expectations
    • regular socialization
      • actual interaction with real people
      • two way verbal or physical exchange
      • person being socialized has an active role
      • person being socialized can affect the outcome
    • media socialization
      • one-sided process
      • person being socialized cannot interact
      • agent sends a message that the viewer receives
    • religious influence
    • those that belong to, or were largely exposed to, some type of religion are influenced by it
    • religion communicates guidelines for life on earth
    • how to behave and treat others and the afterlife
    • most religions take a particular standpoint on key issues within our society
    • workplace
    • messages from school are reinforced
    • specialized language
    • procedures
    • rules & codes
    • commit to success of employer
    • dealing with colleagues, customers & competitors
    • social behavior: the interaction among members of the same group responding to external or internal stimuli
    • external stimuli: guided by what others in the same environment are doing
    • internal stimuli: learned from your family, or media
    • the effect of other people on a person’s thought and actions influences behavior
    • direct influence: ex. joining friends at a sushi restaurant when you really what a burger
    • indirect influence: ex. basing your decision to date someone on the reaction you think you’ll get from family or friends
    • socialization: process by which the individual learns the behavioral patterns, skills and values of their social world
    • socialization process
    • basic needs - how to take physical care of oneself
    • socially acceptable goals - such as employment, marriage, having a family
    • roles & behavior - such as how to act in specific conditions (funeral, parties)
    • categories of socialization
    • primary - basic skills needed to survive in society
    • secondary - process of learning how to behave in group situations
    • anticipatory - how to plan the way to behave in new situations
    • resocialization - process where negative behavior is transformed into acceptable behavior
  • culture, gender roles, and gender identity
    • sex - genetically defined, visibly identifiable
    • gender - culturally defined, culturally constructed
    • gender roles
    • a set of societal norms
    • dictates what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person
    • is based on their actual or perceived sex
    • gender identity
    • one's personal experience of one’s own gender
    • is generally described as one’s private sense of being a man, woman or other
    • consists primarily of the acceptance of membership into a category of male or female
    • in what ways are genders constructed
    • clothing, symbols
    • classifications of male and female characteristics/roles
    • relative values of genders
    • how they are valued when compared with each other
    • what behaviors are expected or acceptable
    • cultural influences
    • art & entertainment - popularizes body image
    • environment - availability of resources influences who does what in a society
    • values/religions/beliefs - provides a set of guidelines on what is acceptable within a culture for both roles and expression of identity
    • education/institutions - determines what people learn, which then informs who they “should be”
    • laws/customs - determine what people should or should not do, some roles and expressions of identity are controlled by law
    • divisions of labor/power - expression of who can do what and who has more value in a society, an imbalance leads to a master-servant like scenario whereas a balance leads to an equilateral scenario
  • social attitudes
    • have a significant influence on the development of social identity in the individual
    • our opinions may align with society’s views or stand in direct opposition to them
    • a person may be forced to act as others do in society even through he or she may disagree
    • for many social issues, the individual must learn to integrate both views
    • have to resolve internal conflict and shape his or her response and identity accordingly
    • not all social attitudes are easy to accommodate
  • sexual orientation
    • determined by who you’re romantically, physically, emotionally, and sexually attracted to
    • figuring out your sexual orientation can be confusing
    • for some people, an awareness of their own sexual orientation is clear from the beginning
    • for other people, it takes time for them to develop a clear enough understanding
    • sexual identity: how an individual presents to the world (ex. gay, lesbian, straight)
    • gender identity: someone’s sense of being male or female
    • gender role: characteristics attached to culturally defined notions of masculinity or femininity
    • homosexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the same sex
    • heterosexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the opposite sex, referred to as straight
    • gay: a term for homosexual, can refer to both males and females but is mostly used to refer to men
    • lesbian: a female homosexual
    • bisexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the opposite and same sex
    • transgender: someone whose gender identity is different from their biological sex
    • transvestite/drag queen: someone who dresses in clothes of the opposite gender and for whom that dressing is sexually satisfying, many transvestites are heterosexual men
    • pansexual: someone who has physical and emotional attraction toward persons of all gender identities and biological sexes
    • intersex: a person whose sexual anatomy, genitalia or chromosomes that do not fit the typical definition of male or female, may identify as male, female or neither
    • heterosexism: the assumption that heterosexuality is the social and cultural norm as well as the prejudiced belief that heterosexual people are socially and culturally superior to all other sexual orientations
    • heterosexual privilege: is an advantage automatically given to heterosexual persons simply because they are heterosexual
    • you don’t have to come out about your sexual identity
    • you don’t have to justify your identity or legitimacy of your orientation
    • your right to get married is never questioned
    • you don’t have to fear violence because of your orientation
    • you don’t have to worry about losing your family, friends or financial support
    • you have ample and fairly accurate media representation
    • you can talk about your partner and your love life openly
    • you have the opportunity to learn about your privilege than experiencing oppression firsthand
    • heteronormativity: cultural bias in favor of opposite-sex/gender relationships over same-sex relationships
    • heteronormative bias
    • under representation of same-sex couples in advertising and entertainment and media
    • religious biases to marry same-sex couples
    • heterosexual persons freely discussing their intimate relationships
    • heterosexism is a systemic bias that have been encoded into major social and cultural institutions
    • it causes undue stress which can affect one's physical, emotional, social, personal choices, and well being
    • social institutions (schools, hospitals etc.) can act as a platform for heterosexist attitudes and beliefs to thrive
    • schools may treat the lives of non-heterosexuals as sensitive topics
    • hospitals may limit patient visit to immediate family and exclude same-sex partner
    • heterosexism is systemic oppression which leads to, intersects with and fuels homophobia
    • heterosexism and social attitudes lead to;
    • homophobia: a fear and extreme dislike of gays, lesbians and bisexuals, often exhibited by prejudice, discrimination, harrasment and acts of violence
    • internalized homophobia: the inner feelings of fear or shame about their sexuality, often caused by negative social attitudes and/or personal prejudice
    • gay bashing: the act of attacking someone, physically, verbally, or in written form because of their sexual orientation or their perceived sexual orientation
    • social acceptance is problematic for the LGBTQ+ community
    • this is due to the social stigma attached to a sexual orientation other than straight
    • most LGBTQ+ individuals struggle with accepting themselves
    • they fear whether they will be accepted as a member of society
    • LGBTQ+ individuals experience bullying harassment and discrimination on a daily basis
    • many question their own identity and self throughout their lifetime
    • some choose to say “closeted” while others decide to “come out”
    • but even those who “come out” struggle with confidence and self-esteem
    • benefits of coming out
    • living an open and whole life
    • developing close, more genuine relationships
    • gaining self-esteem for being known and loved for who you really are
    • reducing the stress of hiding our identity
    • connecting with others in the LGBTQ+ community
    • becoming part of a strong and vibrant community
    • becoming a positive role model for others
    • risks of coming out
    • not everyone will be accepting
    • family, friends, classmates, co-workers may be shocked, confused or hostile
    • some relationships may permanently change
    • may experience harassment or discrimination
    • personal safety may be put at risk
    • some young people may be thrown out of their home, or lose financial support
  • discussions around racism
    • racism: the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics
    • stereotype: is a fixed and oversimplified idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside
    • systemic discrimination: patterns of behavior, policies or practices that are part of the structures of on organization which create or perpetuate disadvantage for racialized person
    • prejudice: an unfavorable opinion or feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason
  • crime & deviance
    • sociologist William Graham Summer defined deviance
    • deviance: a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law
    • folkways: norms based on everyday cultural customs concerning practical matters like how to hold a fork, what type of clothes are appropriate for different situations, or how to greet someone politely
    • mores: more serious moral injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society
    • codified laws: norms specified in explicit codes and enforced by government bodies
    • crime vs deviance
    • crime is an act of deviance that breaks not only a norm, but a law
    • deviance can be as minor as picking one’s nose in public or as major as committing murder
    • acts of deviance are defined by society and its important to consider;
    • social context
    • what the existing rules are
    • how did the rules come to be establish
    • rules and norms vary across culture and time
    • our understanding of deviance also changes
    • moral entrepreneurs: individuals or groups who, in the service of their own interests, publicize and problematize “wrongdoing” and have the power to create and enforce rules to penalize wrong doing
    • one tactic used by moral entrepreneurs is to create a moral panic about activities they deem deviant
    • moral panic: occurs when media-fuelled public fear and overreaction lead authorities to label and repress deviants
    • through social interaction, individuals are labeled deviant or come to recognize themselves as deviant
    • social control: an organized action intended to change people’s behavior
    • all societies practice social control, the regulation and enforcement of norms
    • the underlying goal is to maintain social order
    • social order: an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
    • rules are enforced by positive and negative sanctions
    • positive sanctions - rewards for conforming to norms
    • negative sanctions - punishments for violating norms
    • informal vs formal sanctions
    • informal emerges in face-to-face interactions (smiles, pat on the back)
    • formal are ways to officially recognize and enforce norm violations (arrests)
    • functionalist perspective
    • concerned with how the different elements of society contribute to the whole
    • view deviance as a key component of a functioning society
    • social disorganization theory, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory are three functionalist perspectives on deviance in society
    • durkheim believed deviance functions by challenging present views allowing society to progress
    • merton expanded with the Strain Theory
    • strain theory: asserts that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates
      • from birth, we are encouraged to achieve the goal of financial success
      • individuals adapt when according to their goals and means of achieving it
    • social disorganization theory: asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
    • feminist perspective
    • focuses on the way gender inequality influences the opportunities to commit crime and the definition, detection, and prosecution of crime
    • many perspectives on spousal abuse etc.
    • women regarded as criminally deviant are often seen as being doubly deviant
    • they have broken the laws but they have also broken gender norms about appropriate female behavior
    • men’s criminal behavior is seen as consistent with their aggressive, self-assertive character
    • considered to be a double standard
    • labeling theory - a symbolic interactionist approach
    • symbolic interactionism: a theoretical approach used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional
    • labeling theory: the process of classifying kinds of people is a social process that Hacking calls “making up people” and Howard Becker calls “labeling”
    • the social process of labeling some kinds of persons or activities as abnormal or deviant limits the type of social responses available
    • who gets labeled by whom and the way social labels are applied have powerful social repercussions
    • individuals who are labeled, live up to the labels attributed to them
  • personality: nature vs. nurture
    • personality: a usual way of thinking, feeling & acting that is unique to an individual
    • socialization contributes to personality
    • nature/nurture debate
    • newborns not necessarily born with personalities already formed
    • way babies are treated & personalities of people around them shape their development
    • cultural attitudes
    • encourages some traits & discourages others
    • ex. gender roles & traits in western society
    • birth order
    • place within family influences development of certain characteristics
    • is based on socialization
    • child development
    • psychological theories about development of personality & sense of self
    • are tied to development as a whole
    • freud & personality development
    • main force is the unconscious mind
    • through socialization the ego & superego develop to control the id
    • interaction with others leads to development of a balanced personality
    • j.piaget & cognitive development
    • how children develop the ability to learn
    • influenced by social & psychological factors
    • introduced idea that personality develops over time
    • children can shape their own social world
    • four stages of development
    • piaget’s four stages of development
    • sensorimotor
      • 0-2 years
      • look, touch, taste, listen
      • know the world through direct experience
    • pre-operational
      • 2-7 years
      • experience world mentally through communication
      • only see things from their point of view
    • concrete operational
      • 7-12 years
      • complex operations (math) when physical objects are present
      • think in terms of cause & effect
      • can see things from point of view of others
    • formal operational
      • develops in adolescence
      • think abstractly, use logic
      • can imagine alternatives to reality
    • c.h.cooley & the looking glass self
    • sense of self or identity derived from socialization with others
    • "looking-glass" self
      • reactions of others are mirrors that show us who we are
    • look to others to see reflection of our psychological selves & develop set of beliefs about ourselves
    • starts with parents then expands to build & organize our self-concept
    • e.erikson & lifelong development
    • development of self doesn't end in childhood or adolescence
    • it is a lifelong process
    • psychosocial stages: resolving the challenges at each stage leads to healthy personality development
    • infancy & childhood (0-11yrs): focus on developing emotionally, socially, intellectually & physically
    • adolescence (11-18yrs): focus on developing concept of personal identity
    • early adulthood (18-25yrs): learn to form close, lasting relationships & focus on career
    • middle adulthood (25-50yrs): develop sense of accomplishment
    • late adulthood (50+yrs): elders may be revered & respected
    • a.maslow & self-actualized people
    • identified personality traits of "self-actualized" people
    • people who successfully meet their needs and fulfill their potential
      • see things as they are, not as they wish them to be
      • accept themselves
      • think & behave independently
      • have a task or mission in life
      • stick with what they think is right
      • react with emotion to important life experiences
      • have concern for others
      • experience deep emotional ties to others
      • accept differences among people
      • live according to ethical/moral standards
      • have a sense of humor that is not unkind
      • see some of the faults or limitations of own culture