INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

• sociology is the scientific study of people in grou[s

• society - a large social grouping that shares the same geographic territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations

• sociological study examines certain behavioral patterns, skills, values and beliefs expected by a society

• sociology explores how the categories we belong to shape our experience of the world

• sociology also tries to understand how society and these different categories can influence our thoughts, feelings and actions

• some topics to research in sociology include

  • gender differences, teen subcultures

  • family, birth order, immigrant families

  • education, religion, technology

  • society and stress

• there are a variety of agents of socialization

  • family, peer group, school

  • workplace, culture, religion

  • the mass media

• primary socialization

  • the process of learning how to function in society at the most basic level

  • the process by which we learn to;

    • use language

    • learn to eat

    • practice hygiene

    • deal with emotions

    • how to behave according to gender

• secondary socialization

  • the process of learning how to function in group situations

  • learning how to behave in school, church, etc.

  • we learn how to follow the behaviors society expects of us while acting in group situations

• anticipatory socialization

  • the process of learning how to think ahead and to plan appropriate behavior in new situations

• resocialization

  • the process in which society deliberately replaces negative aspects of a person’s behavior with new learning

• social groups

  • two or more people with four characteristics

  • they interact regularly and influence each other

  • believe they have something in common (shared identity)

  • have formal and informal social structure with leaders and followers

  • have common values, behaviors and goals

• a crowd

  • in the same place at the same time

  • do not necessarily have anything in common

  • do not interact regularly with one another

  • have no influence over each other

  • people are unaware of each other in any personal sense

• primary social group

  • few members & interact often

  • deep concern for others - shared culture

  • close relationships - the relationship becomes the goal

  • long term bonds

  • interested in the whole individual personality of each group member

  • these groups tend to have a direct effect on member’s personal identities

• problems within the primary bubble

  • groups may demand members share common values and style

  • can result in members committing acts to be accepted by the group

  • expectations of different social groups may conflict with each other

  • it is difficult to maintain a comfortable social dynamic

• secondary social group

  • larger & interact less

  • established to perform a function/purpose

  • break apart easily - more impersonal/formal than primary

  • members often have short-term or temporary relationships

  • members are judges on what they can do for the group instead of who they are as a person

  • group members have less influence on each other

• positive aspects of secondary social groups

  • due to their less personal nature, members are less likely to conform, allowing personal expression

  • conflicts between secondary groups also tend to be less frequent as their expectations tend to apply only to specific situations

• network

  • a very loose group of individuals who have little interaction with each other

  • can be a large number of people who live long distance from each other

  • can be used when people are looking for a job

  • young, well educated, urban people usually have the largest networks

• 3 ways groups influence behavior; roles, norms, sanctions

• roles - we learn through what is expected of us

• norms - rules within a group that indicate how members should behave

  • mores - moral views, never to be broken

  • folkways - everyday habits, manners, personal appearance

• sanctions - rules within a group that encourage or discourage behavior

  • punishments or rewards to ensure rules are followed

  • informal - smile, frown, praise, criticism

  • formal - official public rewards, scholarship punishment, expulsion, driving ticket

• asch paradigm

  • when an individual’s own opinions and actions are influenced by the majority of the group (conforms to the group)

  • someone modifies his/her behavior based on the actions of the group

• cliques - informal and restrictive group formed by people who share common interests, views purposes, patterns of behavior or ethnicity (exclusive membership)

• main roles - hierarchy

  • queen bee = power, friendship, increased self esteem

  • followers = memberships, increased social life, closer friendships

  • outcasts = bullying, depression, stress, low self esteem

• effects - bullying, insults, hazing (psychologically traumatizing)

• hazing

  • a ritualistic/initiation test, which may include harassment, abuse, or humiliation to perform meaningless tasks

  • newcomer is hazed, once accepted by the group, the victim becomes a bystander, and watches the hazing of others

• high school subculture

  • main features: style, fashion, music, material possessions

  • a means of gaining an identity for many trying to figure themselves out

  • pros of cliques:

    • support

    • sense of belonging

    • protection from other groups

    • boosts self esteem

    • creates a sense of identity

  • cons of cliques:

    • can take away individuality

    • can become hostile to outsiders

    • can alter your behavior

    • members can be dropped

• crowds & mass behavior

  • collective behavior

    • the ways people act in crowds, social movements, cultures or society

    • 3 characteristics:

      • spontaneous & unpredictable

      • localized

      • irrational/dangerous

    • sociologists have difficulty studying collective behavior because reactions from a crowd are not easy to predict

  • types of crowds

    • casual crowd

      • very loose collection of people who react very little to each other

      • may go out of way not to interact

      • examples; people in a store, at a bus stop, on the street

    • conventional crowd

      • people gathered for a specific purpose

      • conforms to norms appropriate for situation

      • examples; school assembly, wedding, movie, religious site

    • expressive crowd

      • people gathered at an event with emotional appeal

      • people join because they are excited about what might happen

      • display emotions (clap, cheer, boo, etc.)

      • examples; political rally, baseball game, concert

    • acting crowd

      • fuelled by a single purpose/goal

      • think in simple terms (clearly right or wrong)

      • reason ineffective in directing emotion

      • can become dangerous

      • examples; political rally, protest

    • mob

      • when an active crowd turns violent

      • highly emotional crowd that pursues a destructive/violent goal

    • riot

      • frenzied crowd without a goal

      • often includes random violence, looting, and/or vandalism

  • mass behavior

    • group behavior that involves people who are dispersed

    • relies on personal communication through mass media and the internet

    • panic

      • collective behavior that causes people to react to a threat in an emotional irrational or self destructive way

    • mass hysteria

      • causes people to respond in an irrational and frantic way

      • people have little to no contact with each other

      • caused by actual (or imagined) event/idea

  • social movements

    • the collective behavior of people who promote or resist changes to society

    • tend to last longer and be more organized than other kinds of collective behavior

    • examples: political movements (equal rights, environmental concerns)

    • sociologists ask 2 main questions when investigating social movements

      • who will be affected by the social movement

      • how much change is the movement seeking

    • alternative social movements - seek an alternative or narrow change in a small portion of the population

    • reformative social movements - seeks a limited change to all of society, want to reform society by pointing it in a new direction

    • revolutionary social movements - try to change the basic structure of society, the change would impact every member of society

  • theory of social movements

    • social scientists have developed 4 theories to explain how and why social movements arise

    • deprivation theory - started by people who feel deprived in some way

    • mass society theory - appeal to people who feel socially isolated and insignificant and give these people a sense of belonging power and importance

    • social concern theory - occur when a social institution or benefit is threatened by change

    • structural strain theory - movements aim to bring fundamental and revolutionary change to society that is plagued with significant problems and people feel deprived as a result

• bystander effect

  • the unwillingness of members of a crowd to get involved when help is needed

  • altruistic (selfless, helpful) behavior is strongly influenced by the social situation

  • particularly connected to the number of bystanders present

  • the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely someone is to help

  • factors that influence helping:

    • situational ambiguity

      • if it is unclear if something is an emergency, people are less likely to offer help

      • less likely to help in unfamiliar environments

      • examples: someone falls of bike and gets up holding arm

      • when people are in strange cities rather than in their hometowns

    • perceived cost

      • more likely to help if cost to ourselves declines

      • example: you are more likely to lend your class notes to someone you believe will return them (than to a person who doesn’t appear to be trustworthy)

    • diffusion of responsibility

      • less people present, means more people are likely to help

      • more people = less sense of individual responsibility

      • few people = harder to rationalize that someone else will help

      • example: you suddenly felt faint and are about to pass out on the street

      • you would be more likely to receive help if there are only a few passers-by present than if the street is crowded with pedestrians

    • similarity

      • people are more willing to help others who they perceive to be similar to themselves

      • common background, beliefs, appearance

      • examples: people are more likely to help others who dress like them those in different attire

      • people tend to be more willing to help their kin than to help non--kin

    • mood - people are generally more willing to help others when they are in a good mood

    • gender - women tend to receive more help and assistance than men

    • attributions of the cause of need

      • people are much more likely to help others they judge to be innocent victims than those they believe have brought their problems on themselves

      • example: they may fail to lend assistance to homeless people and drug addicts whom they feel “deserve what they get”

    • social norms

      • social norms define behaviors that are expected of people in social situations

      • example: people are more likely to make a charitable donation when they are asked by a co-worker in full view of others than when they receive an appeal in the mail in the privacy of their own home

• socialization

  • sociology - how groups and societies shape who you are; the relationships that exist between people, and the social structures they develop

  • socius (latin) “companion”, -logy (greek) “the study of”

  • two social sciences that focus on human behavior in a social context;

    • sociology

      • scientific study of people in groups

      • goal is to understand & explain patterns of social behavior

    • social psychology

      • the study of individuals within their social & cultural setting

      • examines how society influences human mental processes, behaviors, and personality

  • branches of sociology

    • macrosociology

      • structural functionalism

      • conflict theory

      • feminist sociology

    • microsociology

      • symbolic interactionism

  • structural functionalism

    • view that different parts of society serve a purpose for the society as a whole

    • ex. family, education, media, religion

    • believe social problems are temporary & functions of social groups will improve over time

  • emile durkheim

    • early french sociologist considered to be one of the founders of modern sociology

    • believed individuals identify with society in larger context (as a whole)

    • people are the product of their social environment

    • social order maintained through similarities in society (social cohesion)

    • acknowledged deviance to norms to push society forward

  • talcott parsons

    • american sociologist

    • individuals and groups defined by the purpose they serve in society

    • interconnected institutions that fulfill the 4 functional prerequisites of society

    • adaptation: economy providing material needs (i.e. employment, control prices and supply of resources

    • goal attainment: resources organized so that the needs of the majority are met

    • integration: population understand norms and values of society

    • latency: pattern maintenance (prepare for future role in society, promotes meritocracy and tension management)

  • criticisms of the functionalist approach

    • ignores the conflicts in societies

    • norms and values are explained as serving needs of society

    • marxists and feminists would criticize functionalists on these grounds

  • conflict theory

    • view that power, not function, holds society together

    • society = groups of people acting in competition

    • this conflict may bring about change, progress or improvement

    • people are motivated by external social & economic conditions

    • inequalities of social classes or genders

  • karl marx

    • leading conflict sociologist of 19th century

    • also considered the father of communism

    • studied class conflicts (capitalism) throughout history

    • bourgeois and the proletariat

    • exploitation, alienation, revolution

  • feminist sociology

    • focus on women & gender inequality in society

    • emphasis on better understanding of social roles of men & women in different cultures

    • patriarchy: male dominance of employment, finances, and bodies

    • strives to raise awareness & change - socially & politically

    • ex. discrimination, domestic violence, date rape, etc.

  • symbolic interactionism

    • focus on the beliefs and actions of individuals and their meaning to the individuals

    • human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols

    • our relationships are developed by attempting to interpret these symbols

    • meaning arises through interaction and is modified by thought

  • what is socialization

    • the type of learning that individuals receive from social contact which influences thinking & action

    • how much of an individual’s development & behavior is the result of heredity (nature) or socialization & environment (nurture)?

  • minnesota twin study

    • compared sets of identical twins separated at birth

    • similarities beyond physical traits

    • suggest problems such as antisocial leanings, depression & alcoholism might involve genes

    • differences in attitudes & values support importance of nurture

  • isolated children

    • isolates - children that have been physically, socially & emotionally deprived

    • illustrates that severe developmental problems occur when no socialization occurs

    • anna & genie show adequate socialization at a young age is essential for full physical, emotional, psychological & social development

• agents of socialization

  • people and institutions that shape an individual’s social development

    • family, school, peer groups, workplace, media, religion

  • family influence

    • basic needs - nutrition, language, communication, physical care, etc.

    • rules of behavior - teaches right or wrong, proper and improper, appropriate and inappropriate

    • personality development - gender roles, personal qualities

  • school influence

    • manifest function - the visible purpose of school, students learn a curriculum (standard knowledge and skills)

    • latent function - the hidden purpose of school, students learn a certain set of beliefs and attitudes (cooperation, punctuality, self-reliance, competitiveness)

  • peer group influence

    • during adolescence, peer groups chrome the major agent of socialization

    • learn skills such as communication, collaboration, compromise

    • opportunity to talk about things discouraged by family (i.e. smoking, sexual attitudes, etc.)

    • peer pressure, acceptance vs marginalization

    • peer groups highly susceptible to media influence

  • media influence

    • exposed from an early age

    • movies, radio, television, internet, social media, apps, impact our:

      • expectations from life

      • our values

      • how we see ourselves

      • unrealistic expectations

    • regular socialization

      • actual interaction with real people

      • two way verbal or physical exchange

      • person being socialized has an active role

      • person being socialized can affect the outcome

    • media socialization

      • one-sided process

      • person being socialized cannot interact

      • agent sends a message that the viewer receives

  • religious influence

    • those that belong to, or were largely exposed to, some type of religion are influenced by it

    • religion communicates guidelines for life on earth

    • how to behave and treat others and the afterlife

    • most religions take a particular standpoint on key issues within our society

  • workplace

    • messages from school are reinforced

    • specialized language

    • procedures

    • rules & codes

    • commit to success of employer

    • dealing with colleagues, customers & competitors

  • social behavior: the interaction among members of the same group responding to external or internal stimuli

  • external stimuli: guided by what others in the same environment are doing

  • internal stimuli: learned from your family, or media

  • the effect of other people on a person’s thought and actions influences behavior

  • direct influence: ex. joining friends at a sushi restaurant when you really what a burger

  • indirect influence: ex. basing your decision to date someone on the reaction you think you’ll get from family or friends

  • socialization: process by which the individual learns the behavioral patterns, skills and values of their social world

  • socialization process

    • basic needs - how to take physical care of oneself

    • socially acceptable goals - such as employment, marriage, having a family

    • roles & behavior - such as how to act in specific conditions (funeral, parties)

  • categories of socialization

    • primary - basic skills needed to survive in society

    • secondary - process of learning how to behave in group situations

    • anticipatory - how to plan the way to behave in new situations

    • resocialization - process where negative behavior is transformed into acceptable behavior

• culture, gender roles, and gender identity

  • sex - genetically defined, visibly identifiable

  • gender - culturally defined, culturally constructed

  • gender roles

    • a set of societal norms

    • dictates what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person

    • is based on their actual or perceived sex

  • gender identity

    • one's personal experience of one’s own gender

    • is generally described as one’s private sense of being a man, woman or other

    • consists primarily of the acceptance of membership into a category of male or female

  • in what ways are genders constructed

    • clothing, symbols

    • classifications of male and female characteristics/roles

    • relative values of genders

    • how they are valued when compared with each other

    • what behaviors are expected or acceptable

  • cultural influences

    • art & entertainment - popularizes body image

    • environment - availability of resources influences who does what in a society

    • values/religions/beliefs - provides a set of guidelines on what is acceptable within a culture for both roles and expression of identity

    • education/institutions - determines what people learn, which then informs who they “should be”

    • laws/customs - determine what people should or should not do, some roles and expressions of identity are controlled by law

    • divisions of labor/power - expression of who can do what and who has more value in a society, an imbalance leads to a master-servant like scenario whereas a balance leads to an equilateral scenario

• social attitudes

  • have a significant influence on the development of social identity in the individual

  • our opinions may align with society’s views or stand in direct opposition to them

  • a person may be forced to act as others do in society even through he or she may disagree

  • for many social issues, the individual must learn to integrate both views

  • have to resolve internal conflict and shape his or her response and identity accordingly

  • not all social attitudes are easy to accommodate

• sexual orientation

  • determined by who you’re romantically, physically, emotionally, and sexually attracted to

  • figuring out your sexual orientation can be confusing

  • for some people, an awareness of their own sexual orientation is clear from the beginning

  • for other people, it takes time for them to develop a clear enough understanding

  • sexual identity: how an individual presents to the world (ex. gay, lesbian, straight)

  • gender identity: someone’s sense of being male or female

  • gender role: characteristics attached to culturally defined notions of masculinity or femininity

  • homosexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the same sex

  • heterosexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the opposite sex, referred to as straight

  • gay: a term for homosexual, can refer to both males and females but is mostly used to refer to men

  • lesbian: a female homosexual

  • bisexual: someone who is physically and emotionally attracted to people of the opposite and same sex

  • transgender: someone whose gender identity is different from their biological sex

  • transvestite/drag queen: someone who dresses in clothes of the opposite gender and for whom that dressing is sexually satisfying, many transvestites are heterosexual men

  • pansexual: someone who has physical and emotional attraction toward persons of all gender identities and biological sexes

  • intersex: a person whose sexual anatomy, genitalia or chromosomes that do not fit the typical definition of male or female, may identify as male, female or neither

  • heterosexism: the assumption that heterosexuality is the social and cultural norm as well as the prejudiced belief that heterosexual people are socially and culturally superior to all other sexual orientations

  • heterosexual privilege: is an advantage automatically given to heterosexual persons simply because they are heterosexual

    • you don’t have to come out about your sexual identity

    • you don’t have to justify your identity or legitimacy of your orientation

    • your right to get married is never questioned

    • you don’t have to fear violence because of your orientation

    • you don’t have to worry about losing your family, friends or financial support

    • you have ample and fairly accurate media representation

    • you can talk about your partner and your love life openly

    • you have the opportunity to learn about your privilege than experiencing oppression firsthand

  • heteronormativity: cultural bias in favor of opposite-sex/gender relationships over same-sex relationships

  • heteronormative bias

    • under representation of same-sex couples in advertising and entertainment and media

    • religious biases to marry same-sex couples

    • heterosexual persons freely discussing their intimate relationships

  • heterosexism is a systemic bias that have been encoded into major social and cultural institutions

  • it causes undue stress which can affect one's physical, emotional, social, personal choices, and well being

  • social institutions (schools, hospitals etc.) can act as a platform for heterosexist attitudes and beliefs to thrive

  • schools may treat the lives of non-heterosexuals as sensitive topics

  • hospitals may limit patient visit to immediate family and exclude same-sex partner

  • heterosexism is systemic oppression which leads to, intersects with and fuels homophobia

  • heterosexism and social attitudes lead to;

    • homophobia: a fear and extreme dislike of gays, lesbians and bisexuals, often exhibited by prejudice, discrimination, harrasment and acts of violence

    • internalized homophobia: the inner feelings of fear or shame about their sexuality, often caused by negative social attitudes and/or personal prejudice

    • gay bashing: the act of attacking someone, physically, verbally, or in written form because of their sexual orientation or their perceived sexual orientation

  • social acceptance is problematic for the LGBTQ+ community

  • this is due to the social stigma attached to a sexual orientation other than straight

  • most LGBTQ+ individuals struggle with accepting themselves

  • they fear whether they will be accepted as a member of society

  • LGBTQ+ individuals experience bullying harassment and discrimination on a daily basis

  • many question their own identity and self throughout their lifetime

  • some choose to say “closeted” while others decide to “come out”

  • but even those who “come out” struggle with confidence and self-esteem

  • benefits of coming out

    • living an open and whole life

    • developing close, more genuine relationships

    • gaining self-esteem for being known and loved for who you really are

    • reducing the stress of hiding our identity

    • connecting with others in the LGBTQ+ community

    • becoming part of a strong and vibrant community

    • becoming a positive role model for others

  • risks of coming out

    • not everyone will be accepting

    • family, friends, classmates, co-workers may be shocked, confused or hostile

    • some relationships may permanently change

    • may experience harassment or discrimination

    • personal safety may be put at risk

    • some young people may be thrown out of their home, or lose financial support

• discussions around racism

  • racism: the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another, that a person’s social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics

  • stereotype: is a fixed and oversimplified idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside

  • systemic discrimination: patterns of behavior, policies or practices that are part of the structures of on organization which create or perpetuate disadvantage for racialized person

  • prejudice: an unfavorable opinion or feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason

• crime & deviance

  • sociologist William Graham Summer defined deviance

  • deviance: a violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms, whether folkways, mores, or codified law

  • folkways: norms based on everyday cultural customs concerning practical matters like how to hold a fork, what type of clothes are appropriate for different situations, or how to greet someone politely

  • mores: more serious moral injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society

  • codified laws: norms specified in explicit codes and enforced by government bodies

  • crime vs deviance

    • crime is an act of deviance that breaks not only a norm, but a law

    • deviance can be as minor as picking one’s nose in public or as major as committing murder

  • acts of deviance are defined by society and its important to consider;

    • social context

    • what the existing rules are

    • how did the rules come to be establish

  • rules and norms vary across culture and time

  • our understanding of deviance also changes

  • moral entrepreneurs: individuals or groups who, in the service of their own interests, publicize and problematize “wrongdoing” and have the power to create and enforce rules to penalize wrong doing

  • one tactic used by moral entrepreneurs is to create a moral panic about activities they deem deviant

  • moral panic: occurs when media-fuelled public fear and overreaction lead authorities to label and repress deviants

  • through social interaction, individuals are labeled deviant or come to recognize themselves as deviant

  • social control: an organized action intended to change people’s behavior

  • all societies practice social control, the regulation and enforcement of norms

  • the underlying goal is to maintain social order

  • social order: an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives

  • rules are enforced by positive and negative sanctions

    • positive sanctions - rewards for conforming to norms

    • negative sanctions - punishments for violating norms

  • informal vs formal sanctions

    • informal emerges in face-to-face interactions (smiles, pat on the back)

    • formal are ways to officially recognize and enforce norm violations (arrests)

  • functionalist perspective

    • concerned with how the different elements of society contribute to the whole

    • view deviance as a key component of a functioning society

    • social disorganization theory, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory are three functionalist perspectives on deviance in society

    • durkheim believed deviance functions by challenging present views allowing society to progress

    • merton expanded with the Strain Theory

    • strain theory: asserts that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates

      • from birth, we are encouraged to achieve the goal of financial success

      • individuals adapt when according to their goals and means of achieving it

    • social disorganization theory: asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control

  • feminist perspective

    • focuses on the way gender inequality influences the opportunities to commit crime and the definition, detection, and prosecution of crime

    • many perspectives on spousal abuse etc.

    • women regarded as criminally deviant are often seen as being doubly deviant

    • they have broken the laws but they have also broken gender norms about appropriate female behavior

    • men’s criminal behavior is seen as consistent with their aggressive, self-assertive character

    • considered to be a double standard

  • labeling theory - a symbolic interactionist approach

    • symbolic interactionism: a theoretical approach used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional

    • labeling theory: the process of classifying kinds of people is a social process that Hacking calls “making up people” and Howard Becker calls “labeling”

    • the social process of labeling some kinds of persons or activities as abnormal or deviant limits the type of social responses available

    • who gets labeled by whom and the way social labels are applied have powerful social repercussions

    • individuals who are labeled, live up to the labels attributed to them

• personality: nature vs. nurture

  • personality: a usual way of thinking, feeling & acting that is unique to an individual

  • socialization contributes to personality

  • nature/nurture debate

    • newborns not necessarily born with personalities already formed

    • way babies are treated & personalities of people around them shape their development

  • cultural attitudes

    • encourages some traits & discourages others

    • ex. gender roles & traits in western society

  • birth order

    • place within family influences development of certain characteristics

    • is based on socialization

  • child development

    • psychological theories about development of personality & sense of self

    • are tied to development as a whole

  • freud & personality development

    • main force is the unconscious mind

    • through socialization the ego & superego develop to control the id

    • interaction with others leads to development of a balanced personality

  • j.piaget & cognitive development

    • how children develop the ability to learn

    • influenced by social & psychological factors

    • introduced idea that personality develops over time

    • children can shape their own social world

    • four stages of development

  • piaget’s four stages of development

    • sensorimotor

      • 0-2 years

      • look, touch, taste, listen

      • know the world through direct experience

    • pre-operational

      • 2-7 years

      • experience world mentally through communication

      • only see things from their point of view

    • concrete operational

      • 7-12 years

      • complex operations (math) when physical objects are present

      • think in terms of cause & effect

      • can see things from point of view of others

    • formal operational

      • develops in adolescence

      • think abstractly, use logic

      • can imagine alternatives to reality

  • c.h.cooley & the looking glass self

    • sense of self or identity derived from socialization with others

    • "looking-glass" self

      • reactions of others are mirrors that show us who we are

    • look to others to see reflection of our psychological selves & develop set of beliefs about ourselves

    • starts with parents then expands to build & organize our self-concept

  • e.erikson & lifelong development

    • development of self doesn't end in childhood or adolescence

    • it is a lifelong process

    • psychosocial stages: resolving the challenges at each stage leads to healthy personality development

    • infancy & childhood (0-11yrs): focus on developing emotionally, socially, intellectually & physically

    • adolescence (11-18yrs): focus on developing concept of personal identity

    • early adulthood (18-25yrs): learn to form close, lasting relationships & focus on career

    • middle adulthood (25-50yrs): develop sense of accomplishment

    • late adulthood (50+yrs): elders may be revered & respected

  • a.maslow & self-actualized people

    • identified personality traits of "self-actualized" people

    • people who successfully meet their needs and fulfill their potential

      • see things as they are, not as they wish them to be

      • accept themselves

      • think & behave independently

      • have a task or mission in life

      • stick with what they think is right

      • react with emotion to important life experiences

      • have concern for others

      • experience deep emotional ties to others

      • accept differences among people

      • live according to ethical/moral standards

      • have a sense of humor that is not unkind

      • see some of the faults or limitations of own culture