Untitled Flashcards Set

Anthropogenic - derived from human activities El Nino - opposite of normal: suppressed upwelling, trade winds from W to E. High pressure in W pacific, Low pressure in E pacific. La Nina - Extreme of normal conditions: trade winds are stronger and from E to W. Increased upwelling. Warmer and rainer than normal in AUS + SE asia Normal Wind Condtions - trade winds from E to W. cool h2O upwelled off coast of SA. High pressure is East Pacific (SA). Low Pressure in west pacific, H pressure in east pacific. Upwelling - minerals and 02 brought up by colder water. increase in abundancy and health of fisheries due to increased minerals and nutrients in teh water. EL Nino in Pacific NW - warm + dry (opposite) La Nina in Pacific NW - extra wet + cold (extreme) gyers - large ocean circ. patterns due to global wind (clockwise in N hem, counterclockwise in S hem) trade winds in 0-30 degrees - East to West trade winds in 30-60 degrees - West to East Where is the Pacific NW? - East Pacific Climate - long term weather patterns (over time) Factors that effect climate - LOWMEN- latitude, ocean currents, wind, mountains, elevation, near water Rain shadow - when air hits windwardside and is forced to rise faster than normally, causing more precipitation. On leeward side: desert b/c the warm/wet air rose, cooled when at the top of the mountian, and was dry when it sunk onto the leeward side. windward side - The side of a mountain the wind hits (more precipitation due to rainshadow) Leeward Side - the side of a mountian the wind does NOT hit, this is where the rain shadow desert occurs higher elevation = LOWER or HIGHER temp - lower temp Ocean: -makes temp higher -makes temp lower -regulates temp - regulates temp b/c it has a higher heat capacity than land, holding the heat and giving it off when needed. This is why costal areas tend to be more mild. As lattitude increases, average annual temperture... - decreases (inverse relationship) Does Longitude affect climate? - Nope atmosphere is made up of... - nitrogen, oxygen, trace gasses layer of atmosphere that weather occurs in - troposphere air is more dense near the... - surface global wind patterns are created by - earths rotation and convection Coriolis effect - rotation of the earth deflects wind, the air does not rise directly up wind patterns lead too... - can lead to patterns in climate and habitats at those climates what do large bodies of water do to local temperture's? - stabalize or regulate them: climates near large bodies of water tend to be mild warm currents raise temp and humidity true or false? - true cool currents raise temp true or false? - false, they lower temp Currents in large bodies of water can make the ? adjacent to the water cooler or warmer than expected - ? = land What side of a mountian has the most vegetation - windward, this side of the mountian has a high amount of vegetation due to the rain shadow effect how often does ENSO occur? - every 3-7 years Where does ENSO occur? - Pacific Ocean: mainly between SA and AUS Does ENSO effect contenients not directly next to the pacific as well? - Yes, some places like NA are also effected what does El Nino do that supresses upwelling? - warm currents go the opposite direction, suppressing upwelling (because the cold water is not coming up here) in SA What are some effects climate change and melting ice has on costal communities? - property loss, damage, potential relocation, loss of barier islands what is a jet stream? - a narrow, variable band of very strong, predominantly westerly air currents encircling the globe several miles above the earth. There are typically two or three jet streams in each of the northern and southern hemispheres. what does a weakening hadley cell cause? - as temp dif between equator and poles decreases, air ascending and expanding from equator travels further before sinking Is trophospheric ozone harmful or natural and benificial? - harmful: it is a second degree pollutant if it is in the trophosphere what does stratospheric ozone do? - stratospheric ozone creates a barrier between radiation from the sun and the earth, decreasing the radiation that reaches the surface. This decreases harm to the plants, animals, and humans that live here. what are CFC's? - chlorofluorocarbon is a gas that was used in the mid to late 1900's that was released into the stratosphere. When the chlorine broke off the molecules, it broke down the ozone layer and the protection from radiation the earth has. What are the most common types of radiation? - UVC and UVB What does the antartic have to do with ozone? - In the antartic, stratospheric clouds are formed of ice crystals. In their spring (sept./oct.) the ice crystals melt, converting the less reactive chlorine into a more reactive version. chlorine degrades the atmospheric oxygen, and the ozone layer thins How does ozone form? - O2 oxygen molecules in the stratosphere are hit by rays from the sun, split it into two O's, then one will combine with an O2 to make O3 (ozone), then the cycle starts over again - natural cycle What happens when the ozone layer thins? - there can be depressed photosynthesis, impacted food chains and webs, impacts on organisms sensitive to UV radiation, skin cancer and cataracts rates increase in humans. More direct sunlight = faster/stronger wind slower/weaker wind - faster/stronger wind air bubbles in ice cores hold: - trapped CO2 from up to 400,000 year ago that we can use to study past carbon dioxide levels What rises first? CO2 or temp? - CO2 must rise first, then temp rise follows. sometimes this temp rise can be delayed eccentricity - The eccentricity of an elliptical orbit is a measure of the amount by which it deviates from a circle: changes how far or close from the sun the earth is Obliquity - Axial wobble; tilt of earth's axis changes over time Montreal Protocol - Phase out of ozone depleting substances (CFC"S) in 1987 HFCS - hydrofluorocarbons: replacing CFCs, no chlorine so they will not break down the ozone, can still be neg for the environment b/c it still contributes to the greenhouse effect principal greenhouse gases - carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). what is the difference between water vapor and most greenhouse gases? - water vapor is not as dangerouse because it does not stay in the atmosphere for long, making it not contribute significantly to global climate change GWP - Global Warming Potential How is GWP measured? - by: 1) how long it stays in the atmosphere 2) how much it radiates back on the earth stratosphere holds the ____ and the trophosphere is where the _____ occurs 1. ozone layer 2. greenhouse effect - stratosphere holds the ozone layer and the trophosphere is where the greenhouse effect_ occurs What has the greatest overall impact on the greenhouse effect? - CO2 because although it has a low GWP it has a high atmospheric concentration. What has the highest GWP? - HFCs and CFCs What is the GWP of CO2? - 1.0 (All other gases are compared to this gas., it is the standard) why have CFCs leveled off? - the montreal protocal was put into place what happens to CO2 levels in the winter? - they increse because trees go dormant, completing less photosynthesis, therfore taking part in less CO2 sequestering. will sea levels rise if sea ice melts? what about land ice? - no, because the volume has always been there. also water expands when frozen. land ice would cause sea level rise b/c the volume has not always been in the ocean what is a disease vector? what happens to disease vectors when the earth heats up? - An animal that spreads a disease, once infected, to another animal. their range expands when the earth heats up who are most impacted by climate change? - already vulnerable pop. (elderly, poor, pre-existing conditions, children, people with disabilities) ice cores - method for studying climate change by drilling cores in ice caps and glaciers that have build up over thousands of years what can you learn from ice cores? - you can learn the CO2 levels in the atmosphere from the bubbles. This data can be from 1,000s of years ago. You can also tell melting times based on the dark lines in the ice, or you can even gain knowledge from the volcanic ash in the ice patterns of ____ is happening quickly -cooling -lizard population -warming - warming sea level rise has a ___ and a ___ impact - environmental and economic changes in temp could cause changes in air circulation. specific examples of this are: - -wind placement, temp and precipitation locations change -change speed and strength of the jet stream -increased temp or water could cause soil erosion ice melting lowers ___ levels - high albedo: the white parts of land that reflect the most light back to space. creates a positive feedback loop positive feedback loop - Causes a system to change further in the same direction. permafrost is melting causing - positive feedback loop: melting: relases methane: warms earth: melting sea ice melting in the artic effects habitats of the ... - polar bears salinity and temp changes ___ of water -apperance -density -volume - density benifit of sea level rise: -more drinking water -more marine habitat -more places to swim - -more marine habitat ocean currents can change due to salinity and temp changes in water as ice melts. this can cause... - -land temp to change (especially in costal areas) -change in current patterns of how heat is distributed across the globe average amount of children each woman births - 2.5 What does TFR mean? - total fertility rate - average # of children a women has a developing country would have a lower TFR: true or false - False- they have a higher TFR because there is more need for young people in the workforce, less family planning, and less education for women. Why do developed countries have lower TFR's? - Less need for young people in the workforce, more family planning, governmental policies/insentives, more education for women. inverted pyramid shape (top heavy) in a population pyramid means: - the population is declining rectangular pyramid shape (middle heavy/rectangular) in an age structure diagram means: - stable bottom heavy in an age strucucture in a diagram means: - growing population what are the three stages on a y-axis of a population pyramid - along with ages, there are the three stages of: pre-reproductive (0-14 yrs), reproductive (15-45 yrs), post-reproductive (46+) Societal factors effecting human population growth - birth and death rates, education for women, nutrition, infant mortality rate, age of marriage. what is an example of density-independent factors (that limit human population growth)? - storms, fires, heat waves, droughts what is an example of density-dependent factors (that limit human population growth)? - disease transmission, territory size, food avalibility, acess to clean air, acess to clean water The longer a women is in education, usually the ___ babies she has - less: the higher the rate of womens education, the lower the TFR Doublling time - the amount of time it takes for a population to double, uses rule of 70 to calculate. (70/r=dt) r = growth rate dt= doubling time What is the equation for doubling time or the rule of 70? - 70 / r = dt r= growth rate dt = doubling time r needs to be the percentage, not the decimal the percentage can be changed to. demographic transition - change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates what important factors does a demographic transition graph show? - birth rate, death rate, total population, area of natural increase What are the 4 stages and their order? - -Pre-Industrial: high death rates and high birth rates, low population. More children in the workforce and a more agricultural focus, high infant mortality -Transitional: very high pop. growth, improved medicine, sanitation and food. Death rate drops, (gap between death and birth rate is larger= area of natural increase) and birth rate stays high (still drops a bit) (also known as Developing) -Industrial: slow pop. growth, high education (women especially), low infant mortality, towards end birth rate begins to drop, birth and death rates come close and almost overlap (also known as Developed) -Post-industrial: 0 or negative growth, high education, low infant mortality, older pop. may become a tax burden, birth rate and death rate overlap, or birth rate falls below death rate (also known as Highly Developed) examples of countries in stage 2, 3 and 4 (demographic transition) - 2: India 3: USA 4: Japan or Germany pathogenic - causing infectious disease where are most pathogens spread? - airborne, waterbone, through vectors, such as mosquitos how does climate shifting effect pathogens? - it changes the suitable habitats for the vectors, causing the vectors and then diseases to be in places people have never seen them before Vector - an organism, typically a biting insect or tick, that transmits a disease or parasite from one animal or plant to another. Pathogen Spillover - A pathogen moving to a previously uninfected host species from an infected one. Usually from animal to human. main reasons why less developed countries have higher rates of infectious disease - -less sanitary waste disposal -less access to healthcare and antibiotics -less access to clean drinking water or treatment for drinking water or sewage -tropical climates + open air living exposes to vectors (mosquitos) Plauge - -Bacterial -Vector: fleas (attached to mice and rats) -symptoms: puss filled sores, ring around a red bite Tuberculosis - -Bacterial: -Vector: transmitted by breathing bacteria from body fluids (resp. droplets) -Symptoms: night sweats, fever,coughing blood Malaria - Parasitic Protist -Vector: infected mosquitos -recurring flu like symptoms -most common in sub-Aaharan Africa West Nile - -Virus -Vector: infected mosquitos (must bite infected bird and then human) -Symptoms: brain inflammation, can attack lungs Zika - -Virus -Vector: infected mosquitos -Symptoms: infected pregnant women can pass it onto infants, and can cause birth defects in the babies, flu like symptoms -can be spread by sexual contact SARS - -Coronovirus -Vetor: Caused by respiratory droplets from infected person, transmitted by touching or inhaling fluids from an infected person -form of pneumonia -Very fatal MERS - -Coronavirus -transmitted from animals to humans -fever, cough, shortness of breath (flu and cold like symptoms) -can lead to severe respiratory illness Cholora - -Bacteria -Vector: transmitted by drinking infected water -Symptoms: vomiting, muscle cramps, diarrhea; can cause severe dehydration -introduced by water contaminated with human feces HIV/AIDS - Virus that destroys the immune system that should protect the body from diseases. The disease is passed from person to person through sexual acts, blood transfusions, used hypodermic needles, or from mother to child during birth. Non-renewable sources of energy - Are sources of energy that can run out. ex: coal, natural gas, nuclear, oil renewable sources of energy - can replenish themselves naturally: biomass, hydroelectric, solar, wind, waves, geothermal Biomass - wood, corn stalks, (organic matter used as fuel, especially used in plants to create electricity) _____ countries use a lot more energy than ______ countries - developed, developing what are the most commonly used energy sources? - fossil fuels: petroleum, natural gas, coal percent increase calculation - (initial-final)/initial x 100% HINT: initial/final is the absolute positive, becasue we make it positive this percent change will not show the direction it changes the more technology a country uses, the more ____ they usually need - energy (usually fossil fuels) the energy source someone uses is usually based on - Availibility, Price, Governmental Regulations Growth rate calculation - 70/growth rate = doubling time in years Wood and Charcoal as energy sources: - -used in developing countries -easily accessabile and useable -deforistation can lead to soil degradation and decreasing amount of precipitation Peat as a resource - -partially decomposed organic material that can be used for fuel -developing countries use peat -using indoors without proper ventilation can cause indoor air pollution and health hazards coal as a resource - - Peat -> lignite ->bituminous -> anthracite -fossil fuel: releases a lot of GG into the atmosphere - anthracite - the cleanest-burning coal; almost pure carbon. best quality, highest heating capacity, low sulfulr content, takes longest to make Bituminous - the second-purest form of coal. most commonly used, high heating capacity, high sulfur (worst for environment) Lignite - the least pure coal. -low heating capacity, low sulfur, high moisture Natural Gas - -cleanest burning fossil fuel -does not release as many harmful emissions such as coal and oil, but still produces some CO2 -mostly methane -easy to transport, but can also escape easy Crude oil - -removed from tar sands -tar sands: water, sand, clay bitumen -refined from sands into oil, takes a lot of energy to refine -Fossil Fuels can be made into specific types of fuels for specialized uses:-Fossil Fuels can be made into specific types of fuels for specialized uses How do they refine (mostly crude oil) into different fuel? - the boiling temp. to create each fuel varies, so they boil it to the specific point necassary for the specific fuel Cogeneration - Production of two useful forms of energy, such as high-temperature heat or steam and electricity, from the same fuel source. combustion of fossil fuels is a ____ process -electrical -physical -chemical -natural - chemical: fuel +O2 --> CO2 + H20 how is coal made into electricity? - coal is pulverized -> boiler burns coal -> heat boils water -> steam turns a turbine -> turbine transforms kinetic energy (from moving turbine) into electricity in generator coal environmental issues - -mining: destruction of habitat and use of valuable resources -coal pulverizing: creates small dust, harmful for respritory systems -heavy uses of water -creates carbon dioxide -releases other pollutants: mercury/sulfur oil + natural gas is collected through.... - hydrolic fracking coal is collected by... - being dug out of the groung, surface mining and subsurface mining (deeper) consequences of coal, oil, and gas extraction - -coal mining: destruction of habitat, dangerous -oil extraction: habitat destruction, potential for spills -gas extraction: destruction of habitat, water contamination, earthquakes Hydrolic Fracturing - requires injection of fluids to fracture the rock and increase the porosity and permeability before oil can be extracted: make clay lined well, insert pipe, pump in fracking fluid (water mixed with chemicals), gas trapped in the ground flows out negative consequences of hydrolic fracking - -making well can contaminate water and destroy habitat -if pipe is not lined properly, may contaminate water -fracking fluid contains Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) (can contaminate water, land, or air) -natural gas may leak out of well (can end up in atmosphere, mostly methane) -breaking rock may destabilize geology, causing earthquakes -uses water as a resource How is nuclear energy produced? - nuclear fission What are the steps of nuclear fission? - incident neutron shot very fast at Uranium-235 -this causes chain reaction: splits nucleas in two, and creates large amount of energy. Then this happens to each half, creating a chain reaction (again and again) How does a nuclear power plant work? - Fission splits a large nucleus into two smaller fragments, producing enormous amounts of kinetic energy. Fission energy heats water, producing high-pressure steam that moves a turbine. Turbine creates energy for generator, which creates electricity. steam cools and can be used again (some heat gets relased) pros of nuclear energy - -little to no GG -high power output -low cost after initial construction cons of nuclear energy - waste is very dangerous, chance of nuclear disaster, very high initial cost, non renewable resource Spent U-235 remains... - radioactive. (for like 24,000 yrs!) why is storage for nuclear waste so hard? - -careful as to not cause leaks -NIMBY (not in my backyard) -have to store onsite What is a famouse Nuclear power case? What are causes of nuclear accidents? - -Three Mile Island (water pump failed to cool) -Chernobyl (accident arose from saftey test) -Fukushima was not prepared enough when nat. disasters hit -causes can be natural or human/mechanical Half life definition - it is the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei in an isotope to halve how many half lifes for something once radioactive to be considered safe? - usually 10 is considered safe. burning of biomass produces... - heat for energy at a relatively low cost, but it also produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). the energy in biomass is from - the sun Examples of biomass are - wood, peat, charcoal, crop residue, and manure. they are all low cost, biofuels are lost cost fuel sources how can burning biofuels indoor be harmful? - intensifies health effects of pollutants, for example respritory irritants biofuel ex: ethanol, biodiesel - a fuel derived directly from living matter. Biodisel - A diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants. some sources: soybeans, oil palms, rapeseed Ethanol - Alcohol made by converting starches and sugars from plant material into alcohol and CO2. Some sources are corn (US), sugarcane (Brazil) and sugar beets. positives + negatives of biofuel - positive: combuston is carbon neutral, can be produced domestically negative: net energy is low photovoltaic solar cells - A system of capturing energy from sunlight and converting it directly into electricity (solar panel) consequences of solar cells - positive: generation of electricity, can reduce habitat destruction, large and small scale negative: use is limited by sunlight, limited lifespan,expensive passive solar energy - Solar energy systems that collect energy without the use of mechanical devices (like sun coming through a window) where is solar energy most effiecent in the US? - the southwest (cali, arizona, new mexico, etc) How does hydroelectric power work? - water behind dams flood through turbines which turns generators tidal power - Electricity generated by the movement of sea water caused by the tides (same turbine --> generator system) negatives and positives of hydropower - negatives: -disruption of flow rates for rivers -high matienenece for tidal -high construction cost for dams -most viable sites already used postivies: -no air pollution -no waste -relativly inexpensive electricity production geothermal enegry - the energy produced by heat within the earth: water pumped down a well to geothermal hotspot, water heated to steam (steam rises), then turns turbine, and generator. so same system, different source of heat -geothermal energy is in specific places only where the earth's heat is abnormally close to the crust. consequences of geothermal energy - positive: -no combustion -not dependent on variable weather factors negative: -accessability is limited -relase of gases during drilling + processing (hydrogen sulfide gas) -short-term depeletion of heat possible -impact on groundwater geothermal energy is limited but powerful (not a ? just sounded good) - :) hydrogen fuel cell - a device that produces electricity by separating hydrogen into protons and electrons:-chemical reactants can be added continuesly (the fuel cell does not go dead) how do hydrogen fuel cells work? - -hydrogen fuel is added to the cell (l or g) -in the first reaction layer ,hydrogen molecules are split into protons and electrons -protons and electrons take a different paths -protons move across the membrane -electrons are free to take an alternate rout, creating a flow of electric current -in the second layer, oxygen molecuesl are split and combine with protons and electrons -water vapor is the only emission consequences of hydrogen fuel cells - positive: -low environmental impact -hydrogen is usually found in compounds like water and natural gas -electolysis (clean way to do it, electric currnet used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen) -negatives: -tech = expensive -producing hydrogen fuel from fossil fuels is not clean wind energy pros and cons - Pros -no use of destructive chemicals -no air pollution -don't take up lots of space -modern look as opposed to bulky energy plants -flexible (available in various sizes) -source of income (farmers can rent out land for windmills) Cons -weather dependent -threat to wildlife (especially birds) -noise and visual pollution -only suitable to location with high winds -expensive to set up energy conservation - the practice of finding ways to use less energy or to use energy more efficiently examples of energy conservation - turning lights off when leaving room, south facing windows for heating, trees and large plants to provide shade, electric vehicles, public transportation, passive design elements, percent change equation - Old-new/old x 100 population density equation - population/area birth or death rate equation - # of births or deaths per year/total population crude birth or death rate equation - # of births or deaths per year/total population x 1,000 population growth rate (r) equation - crude births - crude deaths / 10 = r% ex: 40-30/10 = 1% doubling time equation - 70/growth rate % rule of 70 finding future population from growth rate - intital population x growth rate ^years = final population total population calculation - total pop. = (births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration) primary pollutants - pollutants that are put directly into the air by human or natural activity. secondary pollutants - pollutants that form from coming in contact with other primary pollutants or with naturally occuring substances, such as water vapor. Clean Air Act of 1970 - The law aimed at combating air pollution, by charging the EPA with protecting and improving the quality of the nation's air. Air pollutants: sulfur dioxide (SO2), PM, O3, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Carbon monoxide (CO) Lead causes... - in children: anemia, behavioral disorders, lowered IQ, reading and learning disabilities, nerve damage in adults: hypertension, cardiovascular disease combustion of fossil fuels releases... -frogs -oxygen -carbon -tsunamis - carbon all fossil fuels contain.. - carbon and hydrogen forms of coal from purest to least pure - anthracite, biuminous, lignite, peat Impurites in coal are relased during... - combustion. ex: -sulfur --> sulfur dioxide (SO2) -toxic metals: lead, mercury, nickel, arsnic -partially combusted "soot" or PM Coal is considered to be one of our dirtiest fossil fuels T or F? - T when burning chemicals such as: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur you create.... - primary pollutants main primary pollutants - CO, NOx, Hydrogarbons (VOCs), and PM Volatile Organic Hydrocarbons - also called VOCs or Volitale Organic Compounds How is photochemical smog created? - involves primary pollutants (Nitrogen oxides, VOCs) that undergo changes in atmosphere that involves sunlight, water, into secodary pollutants Photochemical Smog Formation equation - NO+VOC -sunlight-> O3 + PANs When are ozone layers higher? - in warmer conditions, so mostly in the summer Secodary pollutants that make up photochemical smog - Ozone, PANs, Aldehydes, HNO3 Health effects of photochemcial smog - irritates eyes, nose, and throat, can worsen existing heart and lung conditions, lung cancer how do you reduce photochemical smog? - reduce nitrogen oxides, and VOCs thermal inversion - A situation in which a relatively warm layer of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below. what does thermal inversion do to pollution - traps pollution factors that effect themal inversions - geography: valleys, nearby mountain ranges, coastal or prevailing winds large cities, high industrialization, lots of vehicles which of the following is not a greenhouse gas? -H2O -CO (c monoxide) -CO2 -CH4 (methane) - CO cultural carrying capacity - the maximum number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely, without decreasing the ability of the earth to sustain future generations. water diversion has caused all of the problems below except: -destroying ecosystems -water waste -shrinking inland water sources -fueding tax payers in states like CA -a drop in farm subsidies - -a drop in farm subsidies crude oil componants from highest to lowest boiling point - asphalt, diesel oil, aviation fuel, gasoline conventional oil has the advantage of... - low land disruption shale oil - oil obtained from bituminous shale. it takes a lot of water to produce burning ____ releases radioactive materials and mercuy in the atmosphere - coal industrial smog is mainly caused by.. - coal burning power plants South Asian Brown Clouds - Stretch across much of India, Bangladesh, China, and the western Pacific Ocean, decrease sunlight that penetrates the atmosphere, contains sulfur dioxide, coal burning is a major contributor acid deposition - Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, emitted by burning fossil fuels, enter the atmosphere-where they combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid-and return to Earth's surface what acid is formed from coal burning power plants? - sulfuric acid formaldehyde, tobacco smoke, radon, SPM are all... - dangerous indoor air pollutants most common in developed countries cap and trade - Mechanism to reduce the emission of pollutants by establishing a market for emission permits. gaseous decay product of uranium found in rocks - Radon Factors that effect climate: what does LOWMEN stand for? - latitude, ocean currents, wind, mountains, elevation, near water Layers of the atmosphere - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere How does the ozone layer protect the earth? - Protects the Earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays: UV-C breaks O3 into two free oxygen atoms, when free oxygen atoms combine with an O2 molecule, O3 is formed how can we reduce anthropogenic ozone depletion? - phase out CFCs, for example the montreal protocol global warming potential - the relative ability of one molecule of a given greenhouse gas to contribute to warming over an 100 yr. period, relative to CO2 Clean Air Act - 1970- law that established national standards for states, strict auto emissions guidelines, and regulations, which set air pollution standards for private industry vapor recovery nozzle - prevents fumes from escaping into the atmosphere when fueling a motor vehicle catalytic converter - a device that reduces carbon monoxide emissions from vehicles. Reduces toxicity of pollutants wet scrubber - fine mists of water vapor trap particulates and convert them to a sludge that is collected and disposed of usually in a landfill Dry Scrubber - -uses dry substances to capture pollutants; captures or changes pollutants -not as effective as wet scrubbers electrostatic precipitator - A device used for removing particulates from smokestack emissions. The charged particles are attracted to an oppositely charged metal plate, where they are precipitated out of the air. ocean acidification - when CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers ocean pH Is a lower pH more acidic or less acidic? - more acidic, the higher the pH, the lower the acidity. CO2 + H2O - carbonic acid (H2CO3) Bicarbonate and carbontate occur when.. - you loose 1 (carbonate) or 2 (bicarbonate) hydrogen ions. pH - hydrogen ion concentration. the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration, the more of the H+ (hydrogen ion), the lower the pH, (more acidic) So adding more carbon dioxide, there will be more H+, so a lower pH. what is a main factor that determines acidity of the ocean? - the amount of carbon dioxide: the more CO2, the more hydrogen ions, so the lower the pH, the higher the acidity why is less carbonate in water (as a result of a higher acidity) bad? - it creates less calcium carbonate, which strengthens shells. Ocean acidification chemical equation - CO2 + H20 --> (H+) + (HCO3-) H+ = hydrogen ion HCO3= bicarbonate ion photochemical smog - An atmospheric condition formed through a combination of weather conditions and pollution, especially from motor vehicle emissions. Photochemical Smog Formation (and equation) - -NO2 turns to NO + O (as a result of UV rays) -transfers to O + O2 to form ozone. -NO transfers to NO + VOCs to form Photochemical oxidants. -Photochemical oxidants + Ozone = Photochemical smog. ozone depletion chemical process - -Cl + O3 --> ClO + O2 -ClO+O -->Cl +O2 -O3+O --> 2O2 -so basically, the chlorine splits up the ozone molecule into an oxygen and an O2. this stolen oxygen becomes part of ClO, which combines with oxygens forming Cl and O2 (instead of ozone). So, the chlorine splits up ozone molecules. Photosynthesis chemical equation - 6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 carbon dioxide + water --> glucose + oxygen industrial smog equation - -Carbon in coal --> burn --> CO + CO2 + soot -Sulfur in coal (oil): S + O2 --> SO2 + H2O(g) ---> H2SO4 (droplets, acid rain, and ammonia) -two reactions happen at the same time, they create things that together make industrial smog Primary Pollutants - Pollutants emitted directly from a source, such as factories or vehicles. Examples: Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and particulate matter (PM). Secondary Pollutants - Pollutants formed when primary pollutants react in the atmosphere. Examples: Ozone (O₃), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), and nitric acid (HNO₃). Carbon Monoxide (CO) - A colorless, odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. It binds to hemoglobin in blood, reducing oxygen transport. Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) - A colorless gas with a strong odor, produced from burning coal and oil. It contributes to acid rain. Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ) - Gases produced from high-temperature combustion, including nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and nitric oxide (NO). They contribute to smog and acid rain. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) - Organic chemicals that evaporate into the atmosphere and participate in forming ozone and smog. Examples: Benzene, formaldehyde. Particulate Matter (PM) - Tiny particles suspended in the air, categorized by size: PM₂.₅: Particles with a diameter less than 2.5 micrometers. PM₁₀: Particles with a diameter less than 10 micrometers. Tropospheric Ozone (O₃) - A secondary pollutant formed by the reaction of sunlight, VOCs, and NOₓ; a major component of smog. Lead (Pb) - A heavy metal once commonly found in gasoline and paint, harmful to neurological development. Photochemical Smog - A type of air pollution formed by sunlight-driven reactions between NOₓ and VOCs. Major component: Ozone (O₃). Industrial Smog - Pollution associated with burning coal and heavy industries. Major components: SO₂, particulates, and sulfuric acid. Acid Rain - Rain with a pH below 5.6, caused by sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃) formed in the atmosphere. Effects of Acid Deposition - Damage to aquatic ecosystems, soil acidification, and damage to buildings. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) - Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Examples: CO₂, CH₄ (methane), N₂O (nitrous oxide), and water vapor (H₂O). Thermal Inversion - A weather phenomenon where a layer of warm air traps pollutants near the ground, preventing their dispersion. Radon (Rn) - A radioactive gas from the decay of uranium in rocks and soil; can seep into buildings and cause lung cancer. Asbestos - A fibrous material once used in construction; can cause lung diseases when inhaled. Carbon Monoxide (Indoor) - From malfunctioning furnaces or gas stoves, causing headaches, dizziness, or death. Indoor VOCs - Emitted by household products like paints, cleaning supplies, and furniture. Catalytic Converter - A device in vehicles that reduces NOₓ, CO, and VOC emissions. Scrubber - A pollution control device used in factories to remove particulates or gases from exhaust. Electrostatic Precipitator - Removes particulates from industrial emissions by using electric charges. Baghouse Filter - Filters particulates from industrial exhaust using fabric filters. Clean Air Act (1970) - A U.S. law aimed at reducing air pollution by setting standards for pollutants and emissions. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) - Standards set by the EPA for six 'criteria pollutants': CO, NO₂, SO₂, PM, O₃, and Pb. Montreal Protocol (1987) - An international treaty to phase out ozone-depleting substances like CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). Troposphere - The lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather occurs and pollutants accumulate. Stratosphere - Contains the ozone layer, which protects against UV radiation. Ozone Layer - A region in the stratosphere with a high concentration of ozone (O₃) that absorbs UV radiation. CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) - Synthetic compounds that destroy the ozone layer; once used in refrigerants and aerosols. Air Quality Index (AQI) - A measurement system for air quality based on the concentration of pollutants. Temperature Inversion - A meteorological condition that traps pollutants near the ground under a warm air layer. Point Source Pollution - Pollution from a single, identifiable source. Example: Factory smokestack. Non-Point Source Pollution - Diffuse pollution without a single source. Example: Urban runoff. Nonrenewable Energy - Energy sources that are finite and cannot be replenished on a human timescale. Examples: Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy. Renewable Energy - Energy sources that are naturally replenished. Examples: Solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass. Coal - A fossil fuel formed from ancient plant material; high in carbon content. Combustion releases CO₂, SO₂, and particulates. Oil (Petroleum) - A liquid fossil fuel; refined for gasoline, diesel, and other products. Combustion releases CO₂, NOₓ, and VOCs. Natural Gas - A cleaner-burning fossil fuel composed primarily of methane (CH₄). Combustion produces CO₂ and water vapor but less SO₂ and NOₓ than coal or oil. Solar Energy - Energy harnessed from the sun using photovoltaic cells or solar thermal systems; produces no direct emissions. Wind Energy - Energy generated by wind turbines; does not produce air pollutants but can indirectly reduce fossil fuel use. Hydropower - Energy generated by water flowing through dams; no direct emissions but can disrupt ecosystems. Geothermal Energy - Energy from heat stored beneath Earth's surface; emissions include some sulfur compounds but are generally minimal. Biomass - Organic material used for energy. Examples: Wood, crop waste, or manure. Combustion can release CO₂, particulates, and other pollutants. Biofuels - Liquid fuels made from biomass, such as ethanol (from corn) and biodiesel (from vegetable oil). Combustion releases fewer pollutants than fossil fuels. Energy Efficiency - The percentage of energy input that is converted to useful work. Higher efficiency reduces pollution by lowering energy demand. Cogeneration - The simultaneous production of electricity and heat from a single fuel source; increases efficiency and reduces waste. Energy Conservation - Reducing energy use through behavior changes or improved technology (e.g., energy-efficient appliances). Combustion - The burning of fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, biomass) to produce energy. Releases CO₂, SO₂, NOₓ, and particulates. Flue Gas - Exhaust gases from power plants and industrial facilities, often treated to remove pollutants. Mercury Emissions - Released from coal combustion; can bioaccumulate in aquatic ecosystems and harm human health. Particulates - Released during combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, contributing to respiratory issues and poor air quality. Coal Scrubbers - Devices that remove SO₂ from power plant emissions by reacting it with a slurry of water and lime or limestone. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) - A technology to capture CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel use and store them underground to prevent atmospheric release. Fluidized Bed Combustion - A technology to burn coal more efficiently and reduce SO₂ and NOₓ emissions. Emission Standards - Regulations limiting the amount of pollutants released by vehicles and power plants. Nuclear Fission - The process of splitting atomic nuclei to release energy. Produces no air pollutants but generates radioactive waste. Radioactive Waste - Hazardous byproducts of nuclear energy production; requires secure storage to prevent contamination. Meltdown - A severe nuclear reactor accident that can release radiation into the environment. Thermal Pollution - Heated water released from power plants can disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Urban Heat Island Effect - Cities retain more heat due to concrete, asphalt, and reduced vegetation, exacerbating air pollution. Ground-Level Ozone (Tropospheric Ozone) - Produced by chemical reactions involving NOₓ and VOCs from fossil fuel combustion. Clean Power Plan - A U.S. policy aimed at reducing carbon emissions from power plants (now modified/repealed). Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) - State-level policies requiring a specific percentage of electricity to come from renewable sources. Subsidies for Renewable Energy - Financial incentives to promote solar, wind, and other clean energy technologies. Carbon Tax - A fee imposed on carbon emissions to encourage lower fossil fuel use and promote cleaner energy. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) - The primary GHG from fossil fuel combustion, contributing to global warming. Methane (CH₄) - A potent GHG released during natural gas extraction and livestock farming. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) - Released from agricultural practices and some combustion processes; a potent GHG. Water Vapor - The most abundant GHG, though its concentration is not directly affected by human activities. Energy Sources and Pollution - Fossil fuel combustion is the primary source of many air pollutants (CO₂, NOₓ, SO₂, particulates). Transition to Renewables - Shifting to solar, wind, and hydropower reduces air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Electric Vehicles (EVs) - Reduce tailpipe emissions but depend on the energy mix of the electricity grid. Lifecycle Emissions - The total emissions from extraction, transportation, and use of energy sources. Renewable energy generally has lower lifecycle emissions than fossil fuels. Primary and secondary pollutants - The two types of air pollutants. Burning fossil fuels - A major source that contributes to many air pollutants. SOx - An abbreviation for sulfur oxides, such as SO2 (sulfur dioxide). NOx - An abbreviation for nitrogen oxides, such as NO2, primarily from cars. The Clean Air Act (CAA) - Significant legislation that regulates many air pollutants. Photochemical smog - Formed from the reaction of NOx with oxygen and sunlight to form photochemical oxidants. VOCs - Volatile organic compounds found in gasoline, formaldehyde, varnishes, and tree sap. Acid deposition - Caused by nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) creating secondary pollutants. Acid rain - Can lead to acidification of soils and water bodies, damage to trees, and corrosion of buildings. Radon-222 - A common indoor air pollutant that is radioactive. Lung cancer - Potentially caused by exposure to radon. Noise pollution - Sound at a level that can cause hearing loss and physiological stress. Common sources of noise pollution - Traffic, construction, domestic activity, aircraft, and industrial activity. Catalytic converters - Function to convert NOx and CO to less harmful chemicals. Scrubbers - Remove pollutants to keep them out of the atmosphere. Environmental impact of noise pollution on animals - Altered behavior, relocation, and changes in migration routes. Particulate matter (PM) - A mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air, categorized by size. Health effects of particulate matter exposure - Can cause respiratory issues, cardiovascular diseases, and exacerbate asthma. Heavy metals - Elements like lead, mercury, and cadmium that can be toxic at low concentrations. Ground-level ozone - A harmful air pollutant formed when NOx and VOCs react in the presence of sunlight. Air quality standards - To protect public health and the environment by limiting pollutant concentrations. Role of trees in air quality - Trees can absorb CO2 and other pollutants, improving air quality. Industrial emissions - Gases or particulate matter released into the atmosphere from factories. Flue gas desulfurization systems - Technology used to reduce emissions from power plants by removing SOx from exhaust gases. Urbanization and air pollution - Urbanization often increases traffic and industrial activity, contributing to higher pollution levels. Alternative energy sources - Wind, solar, and hydroelectric power, which produce little to no emissions. Effects of air pollutants on human health - Can cause respiratory diseases, cardiovascular issues, and exacerbate conditions like asthma. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) - Sets limits on air pollutant concentrations to protect public health and the environment. Effects of climate change on air quality - Climate change can worsen air quality by increasing ground-level ozone formation and altering weather patterns. Contributing to reducing air pollution - Individuals can reduce air pollution by using public transportation, conserving energy, and minimizing waste. Socio-economic status and air pollution exposure - Lower socio-economic groups often face higher exposure to air pollution due to proximity to industrial areas and less access to green spaces. Sources of indoor air pollution - Include tobacco smoke, household cleaning products, construction materials, and inadequate ventilation. Urban planning and air quality - Can integrate green spaces, promote public transport, and reduce traffic congestion, leading to better air quality. Significance of monitoring air quality - Helps identify pollution hotspots and informs policy decisions to protect public health. Weather and air pollution levels - Weather conditions like temperature inversions can trap pollutants close to the ground, worsening air quality. Implications of air quality on economic productivity - Poor air quality can lead to health problems that reduce workforce productivity and increase healthcare costs.