Psychology 1A: Conditioning and Learning

Course Overview and Introduction to Learning

  • Course Code: PSYC5121 (Psychology 1A)

  • Lecturer: Busisiwe Hlatshwayo

  • General Topic: Learning Unit 6: Chapter 6 - Conditioning and Learning

Definition and Nature of Learning

  • Core Definition: Learning is defined as a "lasting change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience" (Weiten, 2022).

  • Mechanism of Learning: Learning occurs through experience or knowledge and plays a critical role in shaping how an organism responds to its environment.

  • Conditioning: Conditioning is identified as one specific form of learning.

Classical Conditioning: Foundations and Processes

  • Origin: Classical conditioning was first described by the physiologist Ivan Pavlov.

  • Definition: It occurs when a stimulus becomes capable of evoking a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus (Weiten, 2022).

  • Basic Principle: A neutral stimulus, when paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggers the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.

Basic Terminology in Classical Conditioning (LO3)

  • Stimulus: Defined as any event or behaviour that triggers a response in an organism.

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not produce any particular response before conditioning begins.

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior conditioning (e.g., food causing salivation).

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): An unlearned, automatic reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food).

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually evokes a learned response (e.g., a bell after being paired with food).

  • Conditioned Response (CR): A learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell alone).

  • Trial: A single presentation of a stimulus or a pair of stimuli (such as the food and bell together) within an experiment.

The Process of Classical Conditioning

  • Before Conditioning:

    • The Unconditioned Stimulus (USUS) naturally elicits the Unconditioned Response (URUR).

    • The Neutral Stimulus (NSNS) elicits no specific response.

  • During Conditioning:

    • The Neutral Stimulus (NSNS) is paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus (USUS).

    • Example: A tone (NS) is followed by meat powder (US), which leads to salivation (UR).

  • After Conditioning:

    • The neutral stimulus alone now elicits the response.

    • The stimulus is now termed the Conditioned Stimulus (CSCS) and the resulting response is the Conditioned Response (CRCR).

    • Example: The tone (CS) leads to salivation (CR).

Basic Processes and Phenomenon in Classical Conditioning (LO3)

  • Acquisition: The initial learning stage where a new response tendency is formed.

  • Extinction: The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer followed by the US.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the Conditioned Stimulus.

  • Renewal Effect: The reappearance of an extinguished response under certain conditions.

  • Stimulus Generalisation: Occurs when an organism responds in a similar way to new stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

  • Stimulus Discrimination: Occurs when an organism does not respond in the same way to a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus.

  • Higher-Order Conditioning: A process where a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus to create new conditioning.

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life (LO4)

  • Conditioned Fear and Anxiety: Many puzzling emotional responses, such as phobias, can be explained through conditioning.

    • Case Example: A woman's phobia of all water bodies was traced back to her father's scare tactics (US) when she was young, which evoked fear (UR). The water (originally NS) became the CS for fear (CR).

  • Immune System Functioning: The functioning of the immune system can be influenced by conditioning. Specifically, classical conditioning can lead to immune suppression.

  • Evaluative Conditioning of Attitudes:

    • Attitudes are often shaped by classical conditioning (Weiten, 2022).

    • The liking of a stimulus can be increased by pairing it with positive stimuli or decreased by pairing it with negative stimuli.

    • Example 1: Pairing energy drinks with funny cartoons increased participants' liking of the drinks.

    • Example 2: Pairing pictures of high-calorie snacks with images of adverse health effects (e.g., obesity) promoted negative attitudes, leading subjects to choose fruit over high-calorie snacks.

Operant Conditioning: BF Skinner (Theme 3)

  • Core Concept: Learning through rewards and consequences.

  • Definition (LO5): Operant conditioning posits that voluntary behaviours are controlled by their consequences.

  • Fundamental Law: Responses followed by favourable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, as reinforcement strengthens these responses.

Terminology and Procedures in Operant Conditioning (LO6 & LO7)

  • Skinner Box: An experimental chamber used to study operant conditioning in highly controlled environments.

  • To Emit: The act of sending forth a voluntary response (e.g., a rat pressing a lever).

  • Reinforcement Contingencies: The specific rules determining when and how responses are followed by reinforcers.

  • Cumulative Recorder: A device that creates a graphical record of responses and reinforcements over time.

  • Acquisition: The formation of a new response tendency.

  • Shaping: The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response until the final behaviour is achieved.

  • Extinction: When reinforcement is stopped, leading to the gradual weakening and disappearance of the response tendency (Weiten, 2022).

  • Resistance to Extinction: Occurs when an organism continues to make a response even after the delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated.

  • Discriminative Stimuli: Cues that signal whether a particular behaviour will be reinforced or not.

    • Stimulus Generalisation: Behaving similarly in the presence of similar stimuli.

    • Stimulus Discrimination: Responding only to specific, distinct stimuli.

Reinforcement and Punishment Types

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to strengthen or increase the likelihood of a response (e.g., giving candy or praise).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus to strengthen or increase a response (e.g., a seatbelt alarm stopping once the belt is buckled).

  • Primary Reinforcers: Inherently reinforcing events that satisfy basic biological needs (unlearned).

  • Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers: Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers (learned).

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour (e.g., receiving a speeding ticket).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour (e.g., losing phone privileges).

Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning

Process

Classical Conditioning Description

Operant Conditioning Description

Acquisition

CS and US are paired, resulting in CR.

Responding increases because of reinforcement (often via shaping).

Extinction

CS is presented alone until it no longer elicits CR.

Responding slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated.

Stimulus Generalisation

CR is elicited by a new stimulus resembling the original CS.

Responding increases in the presence of a new stimulus resembling the discriminative stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

CR is not elicited by a new stimulus resembling the original CS.

Responding does not increase in the presence of a stimulus resembling the discriminative stimulus.

Escape and Avoidance Learning

  • Escape Learning: An organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some currently occurring aversive stimulation (Weiten, 2022).

  • Avoidance Learning: An organism acquires a response that prevents aversive stimulation from occurring in the first place (Weiten, 2022).

Schedules of Reinforcement (LO7)

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Every instance of a correct response is followed by a reinforcer (e.g., a dog getting a treat every time it sits).

  • Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some responses are reinforced, not every one.

  • Ratio Schedules: Determined by the number of responses.

    • Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Results in rapid responding with a short pause after reinforcement. Lower resistance to extinction.

    • Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an unpredictable/varying number of responses. Results in a high, steady rate without pauses. Higher resistance to extinction.

  • Interval Schedules: Determined by the passage of time.

    • Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement for the first response after a set time has passed. Yields a "scalloping" effect with long pauses after reinforcement. Lower resistance to extinction.

    • Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after unpredictable, varying amounts of time. Yields a low, steady response rate without pauses. Higher resistance to extinction.

  • Notes on Schedules:

    • Higher ratios generate higher response rates.

    • Shorter intervals generate higher rates overall.

Observational Learning: Albert Bandura (Theme 4)

  • Definition (LO8): Observational learning occurs when an organism's behaviour is influenced by observing others, who are known as models.

  • Vicarious Learning: Bandura demonstrated that both classical and operant conditioning can occur vicariously through observation.

  • Four Basic Processes (LO9):

    1. Attention: Focusing on the model's behaviour and the consequences that follow.

    2. Retention: Storing the observed behaviour in memory for later use.

    3. Reproduction: Being physically and mentally able to replicate the observed behaviour.

    4. Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behaviour, based on expected rewards or punishments.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

  • Objective: To investigate if children imitate aggressive behaviour after watching a model.

  • Method: Children observed a model behaving aggressively or non-aggressively toward a Bobo doll, with varying consequences: reward, punishment, or no consequence.

  • Findings:

    • Children who saw the model rewarded for aggression were the most likely to imitate the aggressive acts.

    • Children who saw the model punished were less likely to imitate the aggression.

    • Key Conclusion: Behaviour is learned through observation even without direct reinforcement to the learner.

Media Violence and Aggression (LO10)

  • Controversy: There is a correlation between high exposure to media violence and increased aggression in children.

  • Effects:

    • Increased aggression at home and school.

    • Desensitisation: Viewing media violence can mute or reduce emotional responses to real-world violence.

  • Causal Complexity:

    • While watching violent shows likely causes increased aggressiveness, aggressive children might also be naturally drawn to violent media.

    • A third variable, such as a genetic predisposition to aggressiveness, might lead to both a preference for violent shows and high levels of aggression.

  • Criticisms:

    • Weak Effects: Some research suggests the impact is relatively small.

    • Complexity: Media violence is only one of many factors (including parenting and genetics) that influence aggression.