exam 2

1. What tissue type is commonly found in the subcutaneous layer? Areolar and Adipose connective tissue.

2. What tissue type makes up the epidermis? Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

3. List the 5 layers of the epidermis from outermost to innermost. (from superficial to deep)

   · Stratum corneum

   · Stratum lucidum

   · Stratum granulosum

   · Stratum spinosum

   · Stratum basale

4. Where is the only places you will find the stratum lucidum? In thick skin, found on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

5. What significant event begins in the stratum granulosum? The cells begin to die (undergo apoptosis/keratinization) as they are cut off from their nutrient supply.

6. Name the 3 layers of a hair. Name the 2 layers of a hair follicle. Name the layer that surrounds the follicle. What is the unique characteristic of the cuticle?

   · Hair layers: Medulla (inner), Cortex (middle), Cuticle (outer).

   · Follicle layers: Internal root sheath, External root sheath.

   · Surrounding layer: Connective tissue (or dermal) root sheath.

   · Cuticle characteristic: It consists of a single layer of overlapping cells that resemble shingles on a roof.

7. Name the 4 accessory cell types found in the epidermis and the function & location.

   · Keratinocytes: Produce keratin (protective protein); found in all layers.

   · Melanocytes: Produce melanin (pigment); found in the stratum basale.

   · Langerhans cells: Immune cells that ingest foreign substances; found in the stratum spinosum.

   · Merkel cells: Touch receptors; found in the stratum basale.

8. Describe the stratum basale. Describe the stratum corneum.

   · Stratum Basale: The deepest layer, attached to the basement membrane. It contains a single row of actively dividing cells.

   · Stratum Corneum: The most superficial layer. It consists of 20-30 layers of dead, flattened, keratin-filled cells that are constantly shed.

9. Name the 4 types of glands.

   · Sebaceous (Oil) Glands: Produce sebum (oil); located everywhere except palms and soles. (Holocrine secretion).

   · Eccrine (Merocrine) Sweat Glands: Produce sweat (mostly water); located all over the body. (Merocrine secretion).

   · Apocrine Sweat Glands: Produce a thicker, milky sweat; located in axillary and anogenital regions. Unique: They become active at puberty and are stimulated by stress/sexual excitement. (Merocrine secretion, despite the name).

   · Ceruminous Glands: Produce cerumen (earwax); located in the ear canal.

10. List and describe the integumentary disorders discussed.

    · Burns: Tissue damage from heat, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.

    · Skin Cancer: Uncontrolled growth of skin cells (Basal cell, Squamous cell, Melanoma).

    · Infections: Bacterial (impetigo), Viral (warts, herpes), Fungal (athlete's foot).

    · Inflammatory Conditions: Eczema (dermatitis), Psoriasis.

    · Acne Vulgaris: Inflammation of sebaceous glands and hair follicles.

11. List the functions of the skin.

    · Protection: Chemical, physical, and biological barrier.

    · Body Temperature Regulation: Via sweat evaporation and adjusting blood flow.

    · Cutaneous Sensation: Receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.

    · Metabolic Functions: Synthesis of Vitamin D.

    · Blood Reservoir: Extensive dermal vascular plexus.

    · Excretion: Small amounts of waste products in sweat.

12. Identify the characteristics of the 3 types of burns.

    · 1st Degree (Superficial): Only epidermis damaged; redness, pain, edema (e.g., sunburn).

    · 2nd Degree (Partial Thickness): Epidermis and upper dermis damaged; blister formation, severe pain.

    · 3rd Degree (Full Thickness): Entire skin thickness destroyed; appears blanched/blackened, often painless (nerve damage).

13. What do Pacinian and Meissner’s corpuscles detect?

    · Pacinian corpuscles: Detect deep pressure and vibration; located in the reticular layer (deep dermis/hypodermis).

    · Meissner’s corpuscles: Detect light touch; located in the papillary layer (superficial dermis).

14. Identify the 3 pigments responsible for skin color. Which one determines a person’s skin color?

    · Melanin: Yellow to reddish-brown to black pigment.

    · Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment (from plant foods).

    · Hemoglobin: Red pigment from blood in dermal vessels.

    · Ultimate determinant: Melanin (type and amount).

15. (Diagram label answers can be found on the third image, which includes a diagram with labels for the hair shaft, sweat pore, etc.)

16. List and describe the parts of the nail.

    · Free Edge: The part that extends past the finger.

    · Nail Plate (Body): The visible attached part of the nail.

    · Nail Root: The part embedded in the skin, proximal to the nail plate.

    · Lunula: The whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base.

    · Cuticle (Eponychium): The fold of skin that overlaps the nail proximally.

    · Nail Bed: The skin beneath the nail plate.

    · Nail Matrix: The actively growing part of the nail (under the root).

17. Describe the arrector pili muscle.

    · It is a bundle of smooth muscle fibers, not skeletal.

    · It attaches to the hair follicle and the papillary layer of the dermis.

    · When it contracts (due to cold or fear), it causes goosebumps (piloerection).

18. List the 2 layers of the dermis from outermost to innermost and indicate the prominent tissue type.

    · Papillary Layer (outer): Areolar connective tissue.

    · Reticular Layer (inner): Dense irregular connective tissue.

19. Describe the characteristics of perspiration.

    · Eccrine sweat: 99% water, with some salts, vitamin C, antibodies, and metabolic wastes. Hypotonic. Used for thermoregulation.

    · Apocrine sweat: Same basic components as eccrine, but also contains fatty acids and proteins. It is odorless, but bacteria break it down to cause body odor.

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Chapter 6 & 7: Bone and Skeletal Tissues

1. Define the following terms:

   · Lacunae: Small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes.

   · Canaliculi: Hair-like canals that connect lacunae to each other and to blood supply.

   · Haversian canal: Central canal running longitudinally in an osteon; contains blood vessels and nerves.

   · Volkmann’s canal: Perforating canals that run perpendicular to the Haversian canals, connecting blood supply.

   · Osteons: Structural unit of compact bone (Haversian system).

   · Bone remodeling: The ongoing process of bone resorption and deposition.

   · Circumferential lamellae: Layers of bone matrix that go around the entire bone, just deep to the periosteum.

   · Interstitial lamellae: Irregular regions of old osteons between intact osteons.

   · Trabeculae: Interconnecting rods or plates of bone in spongy bone.

2. Identify the steps of bone repair in order.

   1. Hematoma formation: Blood vessels rupture, forming a clot.

   2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation: Capillaries grow in; fibroblasts and chondroblasts create cartilage and connective tissue matrix.

   3. Bony callus formation: Osteoblasts replace the cartilage with spongy bone.

   4. Bone remodeling: The bone callus is remodeled to form a strong, permanent patch.

3. Identify the locations that hyaline cartilage is found in the skeletal system.

   · Articular cartilage (covering bone ends)

   · Costal cartilage (connecting ribs to sternum)

   · Nasal cartilage

   · Epiphyseal plates (growth plates in children)

   · Tracheal and bronchial rings

4. List the 3 types of bone cells and indicate the function of each.

   · Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells (build matrix).

   · Osteocytes: Mature bone cells (maintain matrix).

   · Osteoclasts: Bone-destroying cells (break down/resorb bone).

5. List and describe the disorders of the skeletal system discussed.

   · Osteoporosis: Loss of bone mass; bones become porous and brittle.

   · Rickets (Osteomalacia): Soft, weak bones due to lack of calcium or Vitamin D.

   · Paget’s Disease: Excessive and disordered bone remodeling; bones are enlarged and weak.

   · Fractures: Breaks in bone (e.g., greenstick, comminuted, spiral).

   · Infection (Osteomyelitis): Bacterial infection of bone.

6. List the 2 types of ossification.

   · Intramembranous Ossification: Bone develops from fibrous membrane. Produces flat bones of skull, mandible, clavicles. Begins in utero (8 weeks).

   · Endochondral Ossification: Bone replaces hyaline cartilage. Produces most of the rest of the skeleton (long bones). Begins in utero and continues through adolescence.

7. List the 2 hormones responsible for controlling blood calcium.

   · Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Released from parathyroid glands. Increases blood calcium (by stimulating osteoclasts, increasing reabsorption in kidneys, and activating Vitamin D).

   · Calcitonin: Released from thyroid gland. Decreases blood calcium (by temporarily inhibiting osteoclasts). (More significant in children).

8. What events during growth do testosterone/estrogen cause to occur?

   · At puberty, they cause a growth spurt.

   · Eventually, they cause the epiphyseal plates to close (ossify), ending longitudinal bone growth.

9. (Diagram label answers can be found on the second image, which shows a diagram of an osteon.)

10. Lists the functions of bones.

    · Support: Framework for the body.

    · Protection: For vital organs (skull, ribcage).

    · Movement: Act as levers for muscles.

    · Mineral Storage: Reservoir for calcium and phosphorus.

    · Blood Cell Formation: Hematopoiesis in red bone marrow.

    · Energy Storage: Yellow bone marrow stores lipids.

11. List and define the bone classifications based on shape.

    · Long: Longer than they are wide (e.g., femur, humerus).

    · Short: Cube-shaped (e.g., carpals, tarsals).

    · Flat: Thin, flattened, usually curved (e.g., skull bones, ribs, sternum).

    · Irregular: Complicated shape (e.g., vertebrae, hip bones).

    · Sesamoid: Shaped like a sesame seed (e.g., patella).

12. Define axial skeleton & appendicular skeleton.

    · Axial Skeleton: Bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body (skull, vertebral column, rib cage).

    · Appendicular Skeleton: Bones of the limbs and girdles (shoulders and pelvis) that attach to the axial skeleton.

13. (Diagram label answers can be found on the third image, which shows a labeled diagram of a long bone.) The image also lists two structures to name:

    · CT covering: Periosteum

    · CT lining: Endosteum

    · Tissue type (outer wall): Compact bone

    · Tissue type (ends): Spongy bone

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Chapter 8: Joints

1. What are the 3 structural classifications of joints?

   · Fibrous: Bones joined by dense fibrous connective tissue.

   · Cartilaginous: Bones joined by cartilage.

   · Synovial: Bones separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid.

2. What are the 3 functional classifications of joints?

   · Synarthrosis: Immovable joint.

   · Amphiarthrosis: Slightly movable joint.

   · Diarthrosis: Freely movable joint.

3. What are the characteristics of fibrous joints?

   · No joint cavity.

   · Bones held together by dense fibrous connective tissue.

   · Generally immovable (synarthrotic) or slightly movable (amphiarthrotic).

4. What are the 3 types of fibrous joints? Name an example.

   · Sutures: Between bones of the skull (synarthrotic).

   · Syndesmoses: Bones connected by a ligament (e.g., distal tibia/fibula) (amphiarthrotic).

   · Gomphoses: Peg-in-socket joint (e.g., tooth in its socket) (synarthrotic).

5. What are the characteristic features of cartilaginous joints?

   · No joint cavity.

   · Bones held together by cartilage.

   · Generally amphiarthrotic (slightly movable).

6. What are the basic characteristics of synovial joints? (See question 36 for types)

   · Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage covering bone ends.

   · Joint (synovial) cavity: Space containing synovial fluid.

   · Articular capsule: Double-layered capsule (fibrous layer + synovial membrane).

   · Synovial fluid: Lubricates and nourishes.

   · Reinforcing ligaments: Often present.

   · Nerves and blood vessels: Richly supplied.

7. What are the 4 classification of the axis of movement?

   · Nonaxial: Slipping movements only (no axis); e.g., carpals.

   · Uniaxial: Movement in one plane/around one axis; e.g., elbow.

   · Biaxial: Movement in two planes/around two axes; e.g., knuckles.

   · Multiaxial (Triaxial): Movement in or around all three axes/planes; e.g., shoulder/hip.

8. What are the different types of ligamentous joint? (This likely refers to the types of synovial joints. See question 38 for the answer).

9. What are the special movements seen in the body?

   · Opposition: Thumb touches tips of other fingers.

   · Inversion/Eversion: Turning the sole of the foot medially (in) or laterally (out).

   · Protraction/Retraction: Moving a body part forward (like jaw/chin) or backward.

   · Elevation/Depression: Moving a body part up (like shrugging shoulders) or down.

   · Supination/Pronation: Turning palm anteriorly (up) or posteriorly (down).

   · Dorsiflexion/Plantarflexion: Flexing foot at ankle upward (toes up) or pointing toes down.

10. What are the 6 types of synovial joints seen in the body? Name an example.

    · Plane (Gliding): Nonaxial; e.g., intercarpal joints.

    · Hinge: Uniaxial; e.g., elbow, knee.

    · Pivot: Uniaxial; e.g., atlantoaxial joint (shaking head "no").

    · Condyloid (Ellipsoidal): Biaxial; e.g., knuckles (metacarpophalangeal).

    · Saddle: Biaxial; e.g., thumb's carpometacarpal joint.

    · Ball and Socket: Multiaxial; e.g., shoulder, hip.