psyc chp 14
Lifespan Development
Dr. Hammond Tarry
Kwantlen Polytechnic University
Cognitive Development – Piaget’s Theory
Constructivist Approach to Development
Piaget argued that children actively construct their logico-mathematical understanding of the world through physical interaction with it.
Intelligence is defined as successful cognitive adaptation to the environment, influenced by Darwinian thought.
Universal biological processes interact with children's experiences, stimulating the development of universal logical understandings.
Genetic Epistemology
Refers to the origins of our understanding of reality and basic logical and mathematical structures.
Central to his theory are schemes (or schemas), which are physical and cognitive structures that filter how we interpret new information and environments.
Development and Schemes
Schemes begin primarily motor-based, e.g., infants combining reaching and grasping.
They evolve into cognitive schemes where children create new schemes based on stimuli featuring multiple classes.
Observations revealed similar cognitive errors at similar ages, indicating the limitations of current schemes.
Cognitive Errors and Disequilibrium
Cognitive systems enter a state of disequilibrium when new information does not align with existing schemes.
The goal is to return to equilibrium by adjusting schemes to fit new information.
Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemes.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemes to incorporate new information.
Frequent accommodation suggests a transition to a more sophisticated set of schemes or stage.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Four Fundamental Stages:
Universal: Found across all cultures.
Invariant: Progresses in a linear sequence.
Irreversible: There are no regressions between stages.
Each stage signifies a qualitatively different way of understanding the world, not merely a quantitative increase in knowledge.
Specific Stages and Age Ranges
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
Focuses on coordinating movement with sensory information.
Divided into sub-stages:
Reflexive Schemes: Newborn to 1 month, driven by reflexes.
Primary Circular Reactions: 1-4 months, repetitive movements in their bodies.
Secondary Circular Reactions: 4-8 months, repetitive movements acting on environments.
Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions: 8-12 months, exhibiting goal-directed behavior and object permanence.
Tertiary Circular Reactions: 12-18 months, systematic changes to reactions to learn about the environment.
Mental Representations: 12 months to 2 years, internal representation of stimuli.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Children can mentally represent the world and engage in basic logical thinking but are limited by egocentrism and centration.
Centration: Focusing on the most salient aspect of a stimulus or situation.
Conservation Failure: Inability to grasp that certain properties remain constant despite appearance changes.
Difficulty in perspective-taking and understanding different viewpoints.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Characterized by overcoming preoperational limitations, performing various operations on concepts.
Skills include conservation, decentration, reversible thinking, and more sophisticated classification and seriation skills.
Limitations still exist in abstract and hypothetical reasoning, primarily focused on concrete experiences.
Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
Capacity for abstract and hypothetical reasoning, systematic planning, and problem-solving involving multiple variables.
Ability to engage in decontextualized thinking, reflecting on personal views against new evidence.
Adolescents exhibit differences from adults regarding constructs such as idealism, decision-making experience, and reactions to criticism.
Critiques of Piaget’s Theory
Evidence supports universality, invariance, and irreversibility for the first three stages only.
Considerations of sociocultural influences and variability.
Questions regarding the abruptness of stage changes and potential underestimation of younger children's abilities through typical tasks and performance measures.
Suggestions of less sudden stage transitions and more domain-specific stage usage.
Arguments regarding potential overestimation of adult cognitive functioning and the addition of a fifth stage to describe postformal thought.
Educational Implications of Piaget’s Theory
The influence on educational practices is significant, advocating for discovery, interactive learning, and stage-appropriate activities.
Education viewed as a facilitator in stage transitions.
Cognitive Development - Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky (1978) posited that while Piaget’s approaches were somewhat valid, cognitive development is heavily influenced by cultural belief systems rather than solely physical interaction.
Emphasized social interaction as fundamental to cognitive development through culturally relevant concept transmission.
Intersubjectivity and Cognitive Development
Defined as a shared cognitive understanding between two individuals, promoted through guided participation and scaffolding.
Educators, parents, and counselors are advised to engage in reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning techniques.
Factors such as private speech unify the predictions of both Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories.
Differences in Interpretation of Private Speech
Piaget viewed private speech as a sign of cognitive immaturity (egocentrism), while Vygotsky considered it evidence of maturity.
Research supports Vygotsky’s view whereby cognitively advanced children utilize private speech in preschool and transition to inner speech earlier than peers.
Vygotsky’s Incomplete Theory
Despite incompleteness due to Vygotsky's early death, his ideas on cultural context's role in development are integral to contemporary theories, such as Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.
Moral Development – Kohlberg’s Theory
Influence of Piaget
Kohlberg's moral development theory was significantly shaped by Piaget’s stage models, adopting a similar constructivist approach.
Moral development occurs through distinct stages, constructed via interactions with environments.
Emphasized the role of peer interaction in stimulating development through role-taking and experiences causing disequilibrium leading to accommodation.
Focus on Moral Reasoning
Unlike Piaget, who emphasized moral judgments, Kohlberg focused on moral reasoning—the justifications behind judgments.
Argued that developmental changes in moral reasoning could continue throughout life.
Moral reasoning structure rather than content is critical in assessing development.
Moral Judgment Interview (MJI)
Kohlberg's method for testing moral reasoning involves moral dilemmas like the Heinz dilemma, exploring conflicts between property rights and moral life values.
Follow-up questions assess participants' reasoning to justify their judgments, providing insights into their moral reasoning evolution.
Stages of Moral Development
Initially, Kohlberg proposed six stages divided into three levels:
Preconventional: Stages 1 & 2
Conventional: Stages 3 & 4
Postconventional: Stages 5 & 6
Preconventional Level
This level focuses on self-interest reflecting egocentrism associated with preoperational cognitive development.
Stage One: Judgment based on the outcome's perceived consequences, primarily focused on punishment or reward.
Example: "Heinz should not steal the drug because if he did, he would go to jail."
Stage Two: Emerges a rudimentary understanding that outcomes can vary; emphasis on tit-for-tat reciprocity.
Example: "Heinz should not steal the drug because he will probably get caught and might go to jail for a long time."
Conventional Level
Stage Three: Acknowledgment of significant others' roles in moral reasoning; principles expand from self-focused to ideal reciprocity.
Example: "Heinz should steal the drug because a loving husband should do all he can to help his wife."
Stage Four: Focus on the societal impact of moral decisions and maintaining social order.
Example: "Heinz should steal the drug because if profits are put over lives, society would collapse."
Postconventional Level
Stage Five: Emphasizes moral principles over social convention; judgments are made on the fundamental moral principles.
Example: "Heinz should not steal the drug because individuals' property rights must be respected."
Stage Six: Represents the highest moral reasoning stage, where universal moral principles guide judgments effectively.
Example: "Heinz should not steal the drug as he would disregard others' rights and needs."
Universality, Invariance, and Irreversibility in Kohlberg’s Stages
Similar to Piaget, Kohlberg argued that the stage sequence in his theory is universal, invariant, and irreversible.
Each stage is qualitatively distinct, providing a more comprehensive moral perspective.
Critiques of Kohlberg's Theory
Evidence supports universality for stages 1-3, with stage 4 evidence being limited, and stage 6 occurrence is rare.
The longitudinal data mostly supports stage progression, but less is known about moral reasoning in latter life stages.
Critiques from gender perspectives and potential ideology biases exist in Kohlberg’s score distributions.
Identity Development – Erikson’s Theory
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Erikson (1968) sees identity development as a series of stage-like transitions based on motivations at different life points.
Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis that needs resolution.
Identity versus Role Confusion
This crisis is often triggered in adolescence due to cognitive and emotional maturity growth.
Adolescents start considering their behavior's impact on others and recognizing inconsistencies in their selves.
Successful Resolution Implications
Resolving identity versus role confusion positively affects functioning later in life.
The concept of moratorium, a period for adolescents to actively explore identity, has been introduced by Erikson.
Marcia’s Identity Statuses
Marcia (1966) described four statuses based on crisis experience and clear identification:
Diffusion: No crisis, no clear identity.
Foreclosure: No crisis, but clear identity established.
Moratorium: Crisis experienced, but no clear identity.
Identity Achieved: Crisis experienced and a clear identity established.
Age-related Trends in Identity Development
Initial studies indicated most adolescents are either in diffusion or foreclosure statuses, with transitions to moratorium or identity achievement occurring in young adulthood.
More successful identity resolutions predict success in later life challenges.
Critiques of Erikson and Marcia
Concerns exist that Erikson/Marcia may have overestimated the achievement of identity during adolescence.
Factors fostering identity achievement are cognitive development, parental relationships, experiences outside the home, and cultural influences.
References
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